Search research articles

ABOUT JoVE

Overview Leadership Blog JoVE Help Center

AUTHORS

Publishing Process Editorial Board Scope & Policies Peer Review FAQ Submit

LIBRARIANS

Testimonials Subscriptions Access Resources Library Advisory Board FAQ

RESEARCH

JoVE Journal Methods Collections JoVE Encyclopedia of Experiments Archive

EDUCATION

JoVE Core JoVE Business JoVE Science Education JoVE Lab Manual Faculty Resource Center Faculty Site

Terms & Conditions of Use

Related Concept Videos

Predator-Prey Interactions

Predator-Prey Interactions

Predators consume prey for energy. Predators that acquire prey and prey that avoid predation both increase their chances of survival and reproduction (i.e., fitness). Routine predator-prey interactions elicit mutual adaptations that improve predator offenses, such as claws, teeth, and speed, as well as prey defenses, including crypsis, aposematism, and mimicry. Thus, predator-prey interactions resemble an evolutionary arms race.

Epiphytes, Parasites, and Carnivores

Epiphytes, Parasites, and Carnivores

Plants often form mutualistic relationships with soil-dwelling fungi or bacteria to enhance their roots’ nutrient uptake ability. Root-colonizing fungi (e.g., mycorrhizae) increase a plant’s root surface area, which promotes nutrient absorption. While root-colonizing, nitrogen-fixing bacteria (e.g., rhizobia) convert atmospheric nitrogen (N2) into ammonia (NH3), making nitrogen available to plants for various biological functions. For example, nitrogen is essential for the biosynthesis of the...

Fixed Action Patterns

Fixed Action Patterns

A fixed action pattern (FAP) is a specific, hard-wired sequence of behaviors that occurs in response to an external stimulus, called a sign stimulus. The behavior is “fixed” because it is essentially unchangeable—proceeding similarly across individuals of a species every time it occurs.

Optimal Foraging

Optimal Foraging

How animals obtain and eat their food is called foraging behavior. Foraging can include searching for plants and hunting for prey and depends on the species and environment.

Defenses Against Pathogens and Herbivores

Defenses Against Pathogens and Herbivores

Plants present a rich source of nutrients for many organisms, making it a target for herbivores and infectious agents. Plants, though lacking a proper immune system, have developed an array of constitutive and inducible defenses to fend off these attacks.

Targets for Drug Action: Overview

Targets for Drug Action: Overview

Drugs target macromolecules to modify ongoing cellular processes. Primary drug targets include receptors, ion channels, transporters, and enzymes.
Receptors are either membrane-spanning or intracellular proteins, which upon binding a ligand, get activated and transmit the signal downstream to elicit a response. Drugs bind receptors, either mimicking the action of endogenous ligands or blocking the receptor activity to bring about a modified response. Nearly 35% of approved drugs target the G...

You might also read

Related Articles

Articles linked to this work by shared authors, journal, and citation graph.

Sort by

Same author

Interaction of barn owl leading edge serrations with freestream turbulence.

Bioinspiration & biomimetics·2024

Same author

The incomparable fascination of comparative physiology: 40 years with animals in the field and laboratory.

Journal of comparative physiology. A, Neuroethology, sensory, neural, and behavioral physiology·2023

Same author

Novel marine metalloprotease-new approaches for inhibition of biofilm formation of Stenotrophomonas maltophilia.

Applied microbiology and biotechnology·2023

Same author

Hydrodynamic reception in the Australian water rat, Hydromys chrysogaster.

Journal of comparative physiology. A, Neuroethology, sensory, neural, and behavioral physiology·2020

Same author

Stimulus discrimination and surface wave source localization in Crocodilians.

Zoology (Jena, Germany)·2020

Same author

Form-function relationship in artificial lateral lines.

Bioinspiration & biomimetics·2019

Search research articles

Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 14, 2026

Using Enclosed Y-Mazes to Assess Chemosensory Behavior in Reptiles

Using Enclosed Y-Mazes to Assess Chemosensory Behavior in Reptiles

Published on: April 7, 2021

Potential targets aimed at by spitting cobras when deterring predators from attacking.

Ruben Andres Berthé¹, Guido Westhoff, Horst Bleckmann

¹Department of Comparative Neurobiology, University of Bonn, Institute of Zoology, 53115, Bonn, Germany, berthe@uni-bonn.de.

Journal of Comparative Physiology. A, Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology

|February 13, 2013

Summary

Spitting cobras target the face, not specifically the eyes, when threatened. Oval and round shapes are most effective for eliciting defensive spitting behavior in these snakes.

More Related Videos

Harvesting Venom Toxins from Assassin Bugs and Other Heteropteran Insects

Harvesting Venom Toxins from Assassin Bugs and Other Heteropteran Insects

Published on: April 21, 2018

A Real-Time Interactive System for Studying Confrontational Pursuit Behavior in Rodents

A Real-Time Interactive System for Studying Confrontational Pursuit Behavior in Rodents

Published on: May 16, 2025

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: May 14, 2026

Using Enclosed Y-Mazes to Assess Chemosensory Behavior in Reptiles

Using Enclosed Y-Mazes to Assess Chemosensory Behavior in Reptiles

Published on: April 7, 2021

Harvesting Venom Toxins from Assassin Bugs and Other Heteropteran Insects

Harvesting Venom Toxins from Assassin Bugs and Other Heteropteran Insects

Published on: April 21, 2018

A Real-Time Interactive System for Studying Confrontational Pursuit Behavior in Rodents

A Real-Time Interactive System for Studying Confrontational Pursuit Behavior in Rodents

Published on: May 16, 2025

Area of Science:

Ethology
Animal Behavior
Sensory Ecology

Background:

Spitting cobras (Naja spp.) defend themselves by ejecting venom.
Understanding the visual cues triggering this defensive behavior is crucial for predator-prey interaction studies.

Purpose of the Study:

To identify the visual cues influencing spitting cobra defensive venom ejection.
To determine the role of facial features, shape, and eye presence in eliciting spitting.

Main Methods:

Presented artificial targets of varying shapes, sizes, and eye configurations to spitting cobras.
Quantified the frequency and characteristics of venom spitting behavior in response to targets.

Main Results:

Oval and round targets, mimicking face-like shapes, most effectively elicited spitting.
Target shape was more influential than the presence, arrangement, or texture of artificial eyes.
Spitting likelihood was independent of eye details, suggesting a broader target area.

Conclusions:

Spitting cobras likely aim at the center of the closest body part (usually the face), rather than specific facial features like eyes.
This strategy ensures effective defense by maximizing the chance of hitting a vital area, such as an eye.