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Free Energy Changes for Nonstandard States03:25

Free Energy Changes for Nonstandard States

The free energy change for a process taking place with reactants and products present under nonstandard conditions (pressures other than 1 bar; concentrations other than 1 M) is related to the standard free energy change according to this equation:
Fast Reactions01:27

Fast Reactions

Fast reactions occurring in times shorter than the time needed to mix reactants pose a unique challenge for investigation. In a liquid-phase continuous-flow system, reactants A and B are swiftly pushed into the mixing chamber, where mixing occurs within 1 ms. The reaction mixture then flows through an observation tube, and one measures light absorption to determine species concentrations at various points of the tube. This method is most appropriate when relatively large volumes of reactants...
Carrier Transport01:21

Carrier Transport

The generation of electrical current in semiconductors is fundamentally driven by two mechanisms: drift and diffusion. These processes are essential for the functionality and performance of semiconductor-based devices.
Drift Current:
The drift of charge carriers is started by an external electric field (E). Charged particles, such as electrons and holes, experience an acceleration between collisions with lattice atoms. For electrons, this results in a drift velocity (vd) given by:
Standard Entropy Change for a Reaction03:00

Standard Entropy Change for a Reaction

Entropy is a state function, so the standard entropy change for a chemical reaction (ΔS°rxn) can be calculated from the difference in standard entropy between the products and the reactants.
Spontaneity02:21

Spontaneity

A spontaneous process is one that occurs naturally under certain conditions. A nonspontaneous process, on the other hand, will not take place unless it is “driven” by the continual input of energy from an external source. Processes have a natural tendency to occur in one direction under a given set of conditions. Water will naturally flow downhill (spontaneous process), but uphill flow (nonspontaneous process) requires outside intervention such as the use of a pump. Iron exposed to the earth’s...
Second Law of Thermodynamics02:49

Second Law of Thermodynamics

In the quest to identify a property that may reliably predict the spontaneity of a process, a promising candidate has been identified: entropy. Processes that involve an increase in entropy of the system (ΔS > 0) are very often spontaneous; however, examples to the contrary are plentiful. By expanding consideration of entropy changes to include the surroundings, a significant conclusion regarding the relation between this property and spontaneity may be reached. In thermodynamic models, the...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 14, 2026

An Analog Macroscopic Technique for Studying Molecular Hydrodynamic Processes in Dense Gases and Liquids
11:03

An Analog Macroscopic Technique for Studying Molecular Hydrodynamic Processes in Dense Gases and Liquids

Published on: December 4, 2017

Current fluctuations in a particle-nonconserving reaction-diffusion process.

Pegah Torkaman1, Farhad H Jafarpour

  • 1Physics Department, Bu-Ali Sina University, 65174-4161 Hamedan, Iran.

Physical Review. E, Statistical, Nonlinear, and Soft Matter Physics
|February 16, 2013
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

This study analyzes a particle system

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Area of Science:

  • Statistical Mechanics
  • Non-equilibrium Physics
  • Condensed Matter Theory

Background:

  • Classical particle systems on lattices exhibit phase transitions.
  • Understanding entropy production is key in non-equilibrium systems.

Purpose of the Study:

  • Investigate phase transitions in a 1D coagulation-decoagulation system.
  • Derive exact expressions for entropy production rate.
  • Analyze fluctuations using large deviation theory.

Main Methods:

  • Matrix product approach for exact calculations.
  • Large deviation analysis for fluctuation properties.
  • Thermodynamic limit and finite lattice considerations.

Main Results:

  • Exact expression for average entropy production rate obtained.
  • Phase transition point identified via large deviation function kink.
  • Entropy production fluctuations deviate from Gaussian behavior in the high-density phase.

Conclusions:

  • The study provides a method to detect phase transitions through fluctuation analysis.
  • Non-Gaussian behavior of entropy production is characteristic of the high-density phase.
  • Gallavotti-Cohen fluctuation relation is verified for particle current.