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Related Concept Videos

Menopause01:28

Menopause

Menopause, a natural biological process marking the end of a woman's fertility, typically occurs between the fifth and sixth decade of life. This phase is characterized by the exhaustion of the ovarian follicle pool, leading to less responsive ovaries despite the high levels of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH). The consequential decrease in estrogen production results in symptoms like hot flashes, heavy sweating, headaches, hair loss, muscle pains, vaginal...
Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle01:22

Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle

The ovarian cycle regulates endometrial changes throughout a single menstrual cycle via the coordinated action of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and gonadotrophins.
At puberty, GnRH begins a pulsatile release pattern, which triggers the anterior pituitary gland to secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). The frequency and amplitude of GnRH pulses vary across the menstrual cycle, with faster pulses favoring LH release and slower pulses favoring FSH release.
Hormonal Regulation01:40

Hormonal Regulation

Hormones regulate a significant portion of digestion through activation of the neuroendocrine system. The neuroendocrine system of digestion contains many different hormones all with multiple functions that are both, directly and indirectly, involved in digestion.
Hormonal Regulation01:33

Hormonal Regulation

The renin-aldosterone system is an endocrine system which guides the renal absorption of water and electrolytes, thus managing blood pressure and osmoregulation. Activation of the system begins in the kidneys with a small cluster of cells adjacent to the afferent and efferent blood vessels of the renal corpuscle. As the nephrons are filtering blood, juxtaglomerular cells monitor blood pressure. If they detect a decrease in pressure, they release the hormone renin into the bloodstream.
Hormonal Control of the Ovarian Cycle01:30

Hormonal Control of the Ovarian Cycle

The ovarian cycle is meticulously regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. This cycle orchestrates the release of a mature oocyte, essential for reproduction.
Before puberty, the hypothalamus releases GnRH in a low frequency, low amplitude pulsatile manner. This along with the immature hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis activity, results in low estrogen levels and the absence of a fully functional ovarian cycle.  At puberty, GnRH secretion increases in both frequency and...
Hazard Ratio01:12

Hazard Ratio

The hazard ratio (HR) is a widely used measure in clinical trials to compare the risk of events, such as death or disease recurrence, between two groups over time. It reflects the ratio of hazard rates—the instantaneous risk of the event occurring—between a treatment group and a control group. This measure provides valuable insights into the relative effectiveness of a treatment by assessing how the risk of an event differs between the two groups.
For example, in a clinical trial evaluating a...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 14, 2026

An In Vivo Estrogen Deficiency Mouse Model for Screening Exogenous Estrogen Treatments of Cardiovascular Dysfunction After Menopause
06:18

An In Vivo Estrogen Deficiency Mouse Model for Screening Exogenous Estrogen Treatments of Cardiovascular Dysfunction After Menopause

Published on: August 13, 2019

Postmenopausal hormone therapy: risks and benefits.

Serge Rozenberg1, Jean Vandromme, Caroline Antoine

  • 1Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, CHU Saint-Pierre, Université Libre de Buxelles, Brussels, Belgium. serge_rozenberg@stpierre-bru.be

Nature Reviews. Endocrinology
|February 20, 2013
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Postmenopausal hormone therapy (PMHT) is safe for young women experiencing menopausal symptoms. However, it is not recommended for elderly women to prevent chronic diseases due to increased health risks.

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: May 14, 2026

An In Vivo Estrogen Deficiency Mouse Model for Screening Exogenous Estrogen Treatments of Cardiovascular Dysfunction After Menopause
06:18

An In Vivo Estrogen Deficiency Mouse Model for Screening Exogenous Estrogen Treatments of Cardiovascular Dysfunction After Menopause

Published on: August 13, 2019

Area of Science:

  • Reproductive Endocrinology
  • Geriatric Medicine
  • Pharmacology

Background:

  • Postmenopausal hormone therapy (PMHT) usage evolved from symptom relief to chronic disease prevention.
  • Large prevention trials in the late 1990s reported increased risks of cardiovascular events and breast cancer with PMHT.
  • These findings led to a significant decline in PMHT utilization.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To differentiate the risks and benefits of PMHT for menopausal symptom management versus chronic disease prevention.
  • To evaluate the safety and efficacy of various PMHT formulations and administration routes.
  • To provide updated guidance on appropriate PMHT use based on current evidence.

Main Methods:

  • Review of clinical trial data and epidemiological studies on postmenopausal hormone therapy.
  • Analysis of risk-benefit profiles for different patient demographics (age, health status) and PMHT types.
  • Comparative assessment of oral, transdermal, and vaginal estrogen therapies, and different progestin types.

Main Results:

  • PMHT is beneficial and safe for symptomatic postmenopausal women under 60 years old.
  • Low-dose PMHT, estrogen-only therapy (post-hysterectomy), and vaginal estrogen show favorable safety profiles.
  • Transdermal estrogen and nonandrogenic progestins may reduce thrombotic and breast cancer risks, respectively.
  • PMHT is associated with increased stroke and breast cancer risks in elderly women (>70 years old), making it unsuitable for chronic disease prevention in this group.

Conclusions:

  • A clear distinction is necessary between using PMHT for symptom relief in younger women and for chronic disease prevention in the elderly.
  • Current evidence supports the use of PMHT for managing menopausal symptoms in younger, healthy women, prioritizing safer formulations.
  • PMHT should not be prescribed for chronic disease prevention in older adults due to unacceptable risk profiles.