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Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex

Motor and Sensory Areas of the Cortex

The cerebral cortex, the brain's outermost layer, is pivotal in processing complex cognitive tasks, emotions, and various sensory inputs and executing voluntary motor activities. This intricate structure is divided into three primary functional areas: the motor areas, sensory areas, and association areas.
Motor Areas
The motor areas located in the frontal lobe are central to controlling voluntary movements. This region is further subdivided into the primary motor cortex and the premotor cortex.

Vision

Vision

Vision is the result of light being detected and transduced into neural signals by the retina of the eye. This information is then further analyzed and interpreted by the brain. First, light enters the front of the eye and is focused by the cornea and lens onto the retina—a thin sheet of neural tissue lining the back of the eye. Because of refraction through the convex lens of the eye, images are projected onto the retina upside-down and reversed.

Indirect-Acting Cholinergic Agonists: Mechanism of Action

Indirect-Acting Cholinergic Agonists: Mechanism of Action

Indirect-acting cholinergic agonists work by interacting with an enzyme called acetylcholinesterase (AChE) in the synaptic cleft. They can be reversible or irreversible inhibitors and have different effects on the enzyme.
Reversible inhibitors like edrophonium bind to a specific part of the enzyme called the anionic catalytic site. They form noncovalent bonds, which means they are not strongly attached to the enzyme. This creates a temporary and less stable enzyme–inhibitor complex, leading to...

Visual System

Visual System

Light enters the eye through the cornea, a transparent, dome-shaped surface covering the surface of the eyeball that helps to direct and focus incoming light. This light is then channeled toward the pupil, an adjustable opening whose size is controlled by the iris. The iris, a pigmented muscle, regulates the amount of light entering the eye by contracting or dilating the pupil, thereby ensuring optimal light levels for clear vision.
Once through the pupil, the light passes through the lens, a...

Association Areas of the Cortex

Association Areas of the Cortex

Association areas are regions of the cerebral cortex that do not have a specific sensory or motor function. Instead, they integrate and interpret information from various sources to enable higher cognitive processes such as memory, learning, and decision-making. Some key association areas include the following:
Prefrontal Association Area: This area is located in the frontal lobe and is involved in planning, decision-making, and moderating social behavior. It connects with primary motor areas,...

Timing and Consequences on Behavior

Timing and Consequences on Behavior

In operant conditioning, the timing of reinforcement is crucial. For animals like rats and cats, immediate reinforcement (within a few seconds) is much more effective than delayed reinforcement. For example, a food reward for a rat needs to follow within 30 seconds of pressing a bar to be effective.
Humans, however, can respond to delayed reinforcers. We often make decisions between immediate small rewards and delayed larger rewards. This ability to delay gratification is a significant factor...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 13, 2026

Laser-scanning Photostimulation of Optogenetically Targeted Forebrain Circuits

Laser-scanning Photostimulation of Optogenetically Targeted Forebrain Circuits

Published on: December 27, 2013

A cholinergic mechanism for reward timing within primary visual cortex.

Alexander A Chubykin¹, Emma B Roach, Mark F Bear

¹Howard Hughes Medical Institute, The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.

|February 27, 2013

Summary

Cholinergic projections to the visual cortex are crucial for learning reward timing. This system acts as a reinforcement signal, enabling the brain to predict outcomes based on behavior.

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A Large Lateral Craniotomy Procedure for Mesoscale Wide-field Optical Imaging of Brain Activity

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Last Updated: May 13, 2026

Laser-scanning Photostimulation of Optogenetically Targeted Forebrain Circuits

Laser-scanning Photostimulation of Optogenetically Targeted Forebrain Circuits

Published on: December 27, 2013

A Large Lateral Craniotomy Procedure for Mesoscale Wide-field Optical Imaging of Brain Activity

A Large Lateral Craniotomy Procedure for Mesoscale Wide-field Optical Imaging of Brain Activity

Published on: May 7, 2017

Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Neuroplasticity
Behavioral Neuroscience

Background:

Neurons in the primary visual cortex (V1) associate stimulus-reward intervals with altered spiking patterns.
The precise location and mechanisms underlying this neural plasticity remain largely unknown.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the role of cholinergic basal forebrain projections in learning reward timing in the visual cortex.
To elucidate the mechanisms of neural plasticity involved in reward-based learning in V1.

Main Methods:

Utilized awake, behaving rodents to study neural acquisition and expression of reward timing.
Employed in vitro electrophysiology, pairing white matter stimulation with muscarinic receptor activation to mimic reward timing.
Measured electrically evoked spike train durations.

Main Results:

Cholinergic basal forebrain projections to V1 are essential for acquiring reward timing information.
These projections are not required for the expression of learned reward timing.
In vitro reward timing protocols prolong spike train durations to match the conditioned interval.

Conclusions:

The primary visual cortex has the intrinsic circuitry and plasticity to support learning reward time predictions.
The cholinergic system functions as a critical reinforcement signal, conveying behavioral outcomes to the cortex.
These findings highlight the importance of the cholinergic system in linking behavior, reward, and sensory processing.