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Production of Pharmaceuticals

Production of Pharmaceuticals

Industrial insulin production uses genetically engineered E. coli expressing a proinsulin gene controlled by a tryptophan promoter and containing a methionine linker for later cleavage. The cells also carry ampicillin resistance for selective growth. Seed cultures are stored at −80 °C and production begins by thawing a small amount to inoculate starter cultures, which are progressively scaled to a 50,000-L bioreactor. In the bioreactor, E. coli grow in nutrient-rich media under sterile, tightly...

Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation

Insulin: Biosynthesis, Chemistry, and Preparation

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of pancreatic β-cells synthesizes preproinsulin, which consists of a signal peptide, A and B chains, and a C-peptide. Preproinsulin is then cleaved and folded into proinsulin, which translocates to the Golgi apparatus for sorting and packaging into secretory granules. In these granules, enzymatic clipping generates insulin and C-peptide.
Damage or functional impairment of β-cells inhibits insulin production, leading to diabetes. Diabetes treatment primarily uses...

Tissue Renewal without Stem Cells

Tissue Renewal without Stem Cells

After cellular or tissue damage, the resident stem cells present in the human body can locally repair and regenerate the damaged tissue or organ. However, even though some tissues do not have stem cells, they can repair and regenerate with the help of pre-existing cells. For example, beta cells of the pancreas and hepatocytes of the liver can divide to renew and regenerate the tissue. Here, both cell division and cell death are well regulated by homeostasis.
However, failure of such a system...

Insulin Secretory Vesicles

Insulin Secretory Vesicles

Insulin secretory vesicles release insulin to stimulate blood glucose uptake and regulate carbohydrate metabolism. When the blood glucose levels increase, glucose enters the pancreatic β-islet cells through glucose transporters. Once inside, glucose is metabolized through glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain, producing ATP. This increase in ATP concentration closes ATP-sensitive potassium channels, leading to depolarization of the membrane and the opening of...

iPS Cell Differentiation

iPS Cell Differentiation

The ability of induced pluripotent stem cells or iPSCs to differentiate into most body cell types has stimulated repair and regenerative medicine research over the past few decades. iPSC-derived blood cells, hepatocytes, beta islet cells, cardiomyocytes, neurons, and other cell types can repair injuries or regenerate damaged tissue in diseases such as diabetes and neurodegenerative disorders.

Glucose Homeostasis: Pancreatic Islets and Insulin Secretion

Glucose Homeostasis: Pancreatic Islets and Insulin Secretion

The pancreatic islets comprising only 1%-2% of the volume are highly vascularized and innervated mini-organs. They contain five endocrine cell types, including β cells that secrete insulin, which is synthesized as a single polypeptide chain, preproinsulin, processed to proinsulin, and finally to insulin and C-peptide. This process is complex and regulated, involving the Golgi complex, the endoplasmic reticulum, and the secretory granules of the β cell.
Insulin and C-peptide are co-secreted in...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 13, 2026

Optimized Protocol for Generating Functional Pancreatic Insulin-secreting Cells from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

Optimized Protocol for Generating Functional Pancreatic Insulin-secreting Cells from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

Published on: February 2, 2024

New sources for insulin-producing cells.

Hussain R Al-Turaifi¹

¹Department of Laboratory and Blood Bank, King Fahad Hofuf Hospital, Hofuf, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. hrturaifi@gmail.com

Saudi Medical Journal

|March 12, 2013

Summary

Cellular replacement could cure type 1 diabetes, but donor shortages are a problem. This review explores new sources of insulin-secreting cells, like stem cells, to overcome this challenge.

Area of Science:

Endocrinology and Regenerative Medicine

Background:

Cellular replacement therapy holds promise for curing type 1 diabetes mellitus.
Current limitations include a shortage of suitable donor cells for widespread implementation.

Purpose of the Study:

To review and summarize potential novel sources for generating new insulin-secreting beta-cells.
To explore the roles of beta-cell replication and cell transdifferentiation in the adult human pancreas.

Main Methods:

Literature review of recent research on stem cells (embryonic and adult) and other cell sources.
Analysis of the potential for pancreatic acinar and ductal cell transdifferentiation.
Discussion on the controversial existence of pancreatic stem cells.

Main Results:

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Differentiation of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells into Insulin-Producing Islet Clusters

Differentiation of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells into Insulin-Producing Islet Clusters

Published on: June 23, 2023

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Last Updated: May 13, 2026

Optimized Protocol for Generating Functional Pancreatic Insulin-secreting Cells from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

Optimized Protocol for Generating Functional Pancreatic Insulin-secreting Cells from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

Published on: February 2, 2024

Differentiation of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells into Insulin-Producing Islet Clusters

Differentiation of Human Pluripotent Stem Cells into Insulin-Producing Islet Clusters

Published on: June 23, 2023

Identified embryonic and adult stem cells as potential sources for beta-cell generation.

Highlighted the uncertainty surrounding beta-cell replication and transdifferentiation in adult pancreas.

Noted the ongoing debate regarding the existence of true stem cells within the pancreas.

Conclusions:

Multiple avenues are being explored to source new insulin-secreting cells for diabetes treatment.
Further research is needed to clarify the regenerative potential of the adult pancreas and confirm the presence of stem cells.