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Related Concept Videos

Overview of Secretory Vesicles01:33

Overview of Secretory Vesicles

Secretory vesicles, also known as dense core vesicles (DCVs), are membrane-bound vesicles that transport secretory proteins, such as hormones or neurotransmitters. Regulated secretory vesicles transport proteins from the trans-Golgi network to the exterior of the cell. Proteins present in regulated secretory vesicles are required to be rapidly exocytosed in large amounts upon a specific stimulus.
Various proteins regulate the aggregation of molecules inside the secretory vesicles. Chromogranins...
Fusion of Secretory Vesicles with the Plasma Membrane01:26

Fusion of Secretory Vesicles with the Plasma Membrane

Proteins and neurotransmitters in secretory vesicles can be released from a cell upon vesicle docking, priming, and fusion with the plasma membrane. Vesicles are docked and primed in preparation for the quick exocytosis of their contents in response to a stimulus. The fusion process is mainly carried out by a SNAP Receptor or SNARE complex, consisting of synaptobrevin, syntaxin-1, and SNAP-25.
In 1993, Jim Rothman proposed that the antiparallel pairing of vesicular and transmembrane SNAREs, or...
Synaptic Signaling01:12

Synaptic Signaling

Neurons communicate at synapses, or junctions, to excite or inhibit the activity of other neurons or target cells, such as muscles. Synapses may be chemical or electrical.
Synaptic Signaling01:09

Synaptic Signaling

Neurons communicate at synapses, or junctions, to excite or inhibit the activity of other neurons or target cells, such as muscles. Synapses may be chemical or electrical.
Most synapses are chemical, meaning an electrical impulse or action potential spurs the release of chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. The neuron sending the signal is called the presynaptic neuron, and the neuron receiving the signal is the postsynaptic neuron.
The presynaptic neuron fires an action potential that...
Adrenergic Neurons: Neurotransmission01:27

Adrenergic Neurons: Neurotransmission

Postganglionic sympathetic fibers (except those supplying the sweat glands) releasing noradrenaline or norepinephrine are called noradrenergic or adrenergic neurons. Noradrenaline, dopamine, adrenaline, or epinephrine are collectively called "catecholamines" as they contain a catechol moiety and an amine side chain. The five stages of neurotransmitter release involve their synthesis, storage, release, reuptake and metabolism.
Synthesis: Catecholamine synthesis requires tyrosine, which is taken...
Insulin Secretory Vesicles01:05

Insulin Secretory Vesicles

Insulin secretory vesicles release insulin to stimulate blood glucose uptake and regulate carbohydrate metabolism. When the blood glucose levels increase, glucose enters the pancreatic β-islet cells through glucose transporters. Once inside, glucose is metabolized through glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain, producing ATP. This increase in ATP concentration closes ATP-sensitive potassium channels, leading to depolarization of the membrane and the opening of...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 13, 2026

Single Synapse Indicators of Glutamate Release and Uptake in Acute Brain Slices from Normal and Huntington Mice
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Published on: March 11, 2020

Astrocytes release D-serine by a large vesicle.

N Kang1, H Peng, Y Yu

  • 1Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, New York Medical College, Basic Science Building, Room 220, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA.

Neuroscience
|March 15, 2013
PubMed
Summary

Astrocytes release D-serine via large vesicles, enhancing N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) activation and synaptic plasticity. This mechanism is crucial for certain forms of long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus.

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Last Updated: May 13, 2026

Single Synapse Indicators of Glutamate Release and Uptake in Acute Brain Slices from Normal and Huntington Mice
08:27

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Published on: March 11, 2020

Uptake of Fluorescent Labeled Small Extracellular Vesicles In Vitro and in Spinal Cord
09:01

Uptake of Fluorescent Labeled Small Extracellular Vesicles In Vitro and in Spinal Cord

Published on: May 23, 2021

Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Cellular Biology
  • Synaptic Plasticity

Background:

  • Long-term potentiation (LTP) in the hippocampus CA1 region is N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) dependent.
  • Astrocytic D-serine regulates NMDARs, but the release mechanism remains unclear.
  • Ca²⁺ signaling in astrocytes plays a role in modulating synaptic transmission.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To elucidate the mechanism of D-serine release from astrocytes.
  • To investigate the role of astrocytic D-serine in NMDAR activation and hippocampal LTP.
  • To understand the formation and function of astrocytic vesicles involved in D-serine release.

Main Methods:

  • Experiments conducted on Sprague-Dawley rat hippocampal slices.
  • Manipulation of astrocytic intracellular calcium ([Ca²⁺]) levels (100-150 nM).
  • Application of artificial cerebrospinal fluid (ACSF) via puffing (weak mechanical stimulation).
  • Pharmacological inhibition of NMDARs (glycine site antagonist), D-serine synthesis (serine racemase inhibitor), and D-serine degradation (D-amino acid oxidase).
  • Analysis of vesicle formation, fusion, and D-serine release using microscopy and electrophysiology.

Main Results:

  • Elevated astrocytic [Ca²⁺] or weak mechanical stimulation enhanced NMDAR activation.
  • These effects were blocked by NMDAR antagonists, glycine saturation, and inhibitors of D-serine metabolism, confirming astrocytic D-serine involvement.
  • Astrocytes formed large D-serine-containing vesicles (1-3 μm) through intracellular fusion, releasing D-serine via exocytosis.
  • Spontaneous vesicle fusion contributed to baseline D-serine, affecting NMDAR post-burst potentiation (PBP) slope but not peak.
  • Astrocytic D-serine release facilitated weak theta-burst stimulation (TBS)-induced LTP but not strong TBS-induced LTP.

Conclusions:

  • Astrocytes release D-serine through the exocytosis of large vesicles, a process regulated by intracellular calcium.
  • This astrocytic D-serine release mechanism is critical for modulating NMDAR function and facilitating specific forms of hippocampal LTP.
  • The findings reveal a novel pathway for glial regulation of synaptic plasticity under physiological conditions.