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Related Concept Videos

Anatomical Positions01:11

Anatomical Positions

In anatomy, several standard anatomical positions are used as references for describing the position and orientation of different body parts. These positions help provide a common frame of reference when discussing anatomical structures. The anatomical position is the standard reference point for describing the body's position and orientation. In this position:
The body is upright, facing forward, and standing erect.
The feet are parallel and flat on the floor.
The arms are hanging by the...
Axial and Appendicular Muscles01:18

Axial and Appendicular Muscles

Skeletal muscles, the key players in our body's movement, can be classified into two groups based on their location and function: axial muscles and appendicular muscles. These classifications reflect the primary roles the muscles play in the body's structure and movement.
Axial Muscles
Axial muscles, situated along the body's midline, are intricately connected to the axial skeleton, which includes the skull, spine, ribs, and sternum. These muscles facilitate facial expressions and play a...
Vertebral Column: Regions and Curvature01:16

Vertebral Column: Regions and Curvature

The vertebral column or spine is a flexible column that supports the head, neck, and body and  allows for their movements. It also protects the spinal cord.
Regions of the Vertebral Column
In an adult, the spine is subdivided into five regions: the cervical, the thoracic, the lumbar, the sacral, and the coccygeal region. The spine initially develops as a series of 33 vertebrae; after 20 years of age, the nine bones in the sacral region, five sacral, and four coccygeal bones fuse to form the...
Muscles of the Abdomen01:21

Muscles of the Abdomen

The abdominal wall encircles the abdominal cavity, providing flexible protection and shielding the internal organs from harm. It is bordered at the top by the xiphoid process and costal margins, at the back by the vertebral column, and at the bottom by the pelvic bones and inguinal ligament. The abdominal wall is divided into two regions — the anterolateral and posterior regions.
Anterolateral Region
The anterolateral region comprises five paired muscles classified into the lateral and anterior...
Introduction to Joints00:58

Introduction to Joints

The adult human body usually has 206 bones, and except for the hyoid bone in the neck, each bone is connected to at least one other bone. Joints are the location where bones come together. Many joints allow for movement between the bones. At these joints, the articulating surfaces of the adjacent bones can move smoothly against each other. However, the bones of other joints may be joined by connective tissue or cartilage. These joints are designed for stability and provide little or no movement.
Muscles of the Leg that Move the Foot and Toes01:28

Muscles of the Leg that Move the Foot and Toes

The human leg comprises an intricate system of muscles that facilitate the movement of feet and toes. Within this system, the muscles are categorized into the anterior, lateral, and posterior compartments, each with a unique set of muscles carrying out specific functions.
Anterior Compartment
The anterior compartment includes muscles that contribute to the dorsiflexion of the foot. This compartment houses the tibialis anterior, extensor hallucis longus, and extensor digitorum longus muscles.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 13, 2026

Kinematics and Ground Reaction Force Determination: A Demonstration Quantifying Locomotor Abilities of Young Adult, Middle-aged, and Geriatric Rats
10:28

Kinematics and Ground Reaction Force Determination: A Demonstration Quantifying Locomotor Abilities of Young Adult, Middle-aged, and Geriatric Rats

Published on: February 22, 2011

Trunk orientation, stability, and quadrupedalism.

Y P Ivanenko1, W G Wright, R J St George

  • 1Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, Santa Lucia Foundation Rome, Italy.

Frontiers in Neurology
|March 19, 2013
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Human quadrupedalism offers insights into balance and posture control. This natural experiment suggests upright posture may arise from adaptive processes responding to postural tone disruptions and environmental cues.

Keywords:
bipedalism and quadrupedalismgait pathologyhumanslocomotionmuscle toneposture control

More Related Videos

Method to Measure Tone of Axial and Proximal Muscle
10:41

Method to Measure Tone of Axial and Proximal Muscle

Published on: December 14, 2011

Related Experiment Videos

Last Updated: May 13, 2026

Kinematics and Ground Reaction Force Determination: A Demonstration Quantifying Locomotor Abilities of Young Adult, Middle-aged, and Geriatric Rats
10:28

Kinematics and Ground Reaction Force Determination: A Demonstration Quantifying Locomotor Abilities of Young Adult, Middle-aged, and Geriatric Rats

Published on: February 22, 2011

Method to Measure Tone of Axial and Proximal Muscle
10:41

Method to Measure Tone of Axial and Proximal Muscle

Published on: December 14, 2011

Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Anthropology
  • Genetics

Background:

  • Human quadrupedalism cases have historically focused on genetic and evolutionary explanations.
  • Recent critiques challenge purely genetic models, advocating for alternative research directions.
  • Understanding bipedalism requires examining distinct anatomical and physiological adaptations.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To explore human quadrupedalism as a "natural experiment" for understanding balance and posture.
  • To investigate the physiological mechanisms underlying normal upright posture.
  • To analyze how postural control disturbances influence bipedal and quadrupedal behaviors.

Main Methods:

  • Review of experimental studies on body stabilization in healthy individuals.
  • Analysis of postural control mechanisms in clinical pathologies.
  • Comparison of bipedal and quadrupedal locomotion.

Main Results:

  • Human quadrupedalism is linked to automatic, not voluntary, postural control.
  • Disturbances in postural tone and environmental cues can trigger adaptive quadrupedal behavior.
  • Bipedalism involves specific adaptations in foot bones, musculature, and body orientation.

Conclusions:

  • Human quadrupedalism provides a unique model for studying balance and posture.
  • Adaptive processes, influenced by postural tone and environment, may underlie quadrupedalism.
  • Further research can elucidate the interplay between bipedal and quadrupedal forms.