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Related Concept Videos

¹H NMR of Labile Protons: Deuterium (²H) Substitution00:48

¹H NMR of Labile Protons: Deuterium (²H) Substitution

This lesson illustrates the role of deuterium substitution in simplifying the NMR spectrum of compounds comprising labile protons. One method employed is the use of deuterium. Amongst the three isotopes of hydrogen, deuterium (2H) has a nucleus composed of one proton and one neutron. When the D2O solvent is added to a pure dry ethanol solution, its labile proton is substituted with deuterium.
Dehydration of Aldols to Enals: Base-Catalyzed Aldol Condensation01:14

Dehydration of Aldols to Enals: Base-Catalyzed Aldol Condensation

This lesson delves into the aldol condensation catalyzed by bases, where aldols undergo dehydration to enals. As shown in Figure 1, the β-hydroxy aldehyde formed in a base-catalyzed aldol addition reaction dehydrates on heating to yield an unsaturated carbonyl product, which is commonly referred to as an enal.
Carbohydrate Digestion00:57

Carbohydrate Digestion

Carbohydrate digestion and metabolism break down simple and complex carbohydrates from food into saccharides (i.e., sugars) for the body to use as energy. Carbohydrate digestion starts in the mouth during mastication, or chewing. The masticated carbohydrates remain intact in the stomach. Digestion resumes in the duodenum of the small intestine, where pancreatic alpha-amylase and brush border enzymes of the microvilli convert complex carbohydrates to monosaccharides. Finally, the monosaccharides...
Antifungal Agents01:15

Antifungal Agents

Amphotericin B is a broad-spectrum antifungal agent that exploits structural differences between fungal and mammalian cell membranes. Its amphipathic structure—featuring a hydrophobic polyene-lactone ring and a hydrophilic region containing mycosamine and carboxylic acid groups—enables selective binding to ergosterol, a sterol predominantly found in fungal plasma membranes. This selective interaction underlies the drug’s antifungal activity, although weak binding to cholesterol contributes to...
2° Amines to N-Nitrosamines: Reaction with NaNO201:20

2° Amines to N-Nitrosamines: Reaction with NaNO2

Secondary amines react with nitrous acid to form N-nitrosamines, as depicted in Figure 1. Nitrous acid, a weak and unstable acid, is formed in situ from an aqueous solution of sodium nitrite and strong acids, such as hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid, in cold conditions. In the presence of an acid, the nitrous acid gets protonated. The subsequent loss of water results in the formation of the electrophile known as nitrosonium ion.
Dehydration of Aldols to Enones: Acid-Catalyzed Aldol Condensation00:43

Dehydration of Aldols to Enones: Acid-Catalyzed Aldol Condensation

As shown in Figure 1, under acidic conditions, the β-hydroxy ketone undergoes dehydration via an E1 elimination reaction to form an enone.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 12, 2026

Quantification of Fungal Colonization, Sporogenesis, and Production of Mycotoxins Using Kernel Bioassays
10:01

Quantification of Fungal Colonization, Sporogenesis, and Production of Mycotoxins Using Kernel Bioassays

Published on: April 23, 2012

Deoxynivalenol (DON) in hartweizen.

A Brockmeyer1, G Thielert

  • 1Chemisches und Veterinäruntersuchungsamt Sigmaringen, Hedingerstr. 2/1, D-72488, Sigmaringen.

Mycotoxin Research
|April 23, 2013
PubMed
Summary

High levels of deoxynivalenol (DON) in durum wheat were detected in 2001, prompting increased quality controls. By 2002, DON contamination significantly decreased, showing successful industry efforts to improve pasta product safety.

Area of Science:

  • Food Science
  • Mycotoxicology
  • Agricultural Chemistry

Background:

  • High contamination levels of deoxynivalenol (DON) were identified in noodles in 2001.
  • This led to an investigation of Durum wheat, the raw material for these products.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To assess deoxynivalenol (DON) contamination levels in Durum wheat.
  • To evaluate the effectiveness of increased quality controls implemented by producers.

Main Methods:

  • High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used for the analysis.
  • 53 samples of Durum wheat were analyzed in 2001, followed by 60 samples in 2002.

Main Results:

  • In 2001, 89% of samples were positive for DON, with a median concentration of 790 μg/kg, exceeding the EU action level.

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  • In 2002, 85% of samples were positive, but the median concentration dropped to 215 μg/kg, below the probable maximum level.

    • Conclusions:

    • Producers' increased quality controls significantly reduced DON contamination in Durum wheat.
    • These efforts successfully decreased DON levels in pasta products, enhancing food safety.