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Related Concept Videos

The Citric Acid Cycle: Overview01:37

The Citric Acid Cycle: Overview

In aerobic organisms, the citric acid cycle is the second stage of cellular respiration wherein molecules derived from the breakdown of carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are oxidized into carbon dioxide and energy. This process is also known as the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle as the first product of the cycle, citric acid, contains three carboxyl groups in its structure. Alternatively, this cycle is also referred to as the Krebs cycle, in honor of its discoverer Sir Hans Krebs.
The citric...
Products of the Citric Acid Cycle00:53

Products of the Citric Acid Cycle

The cells of most organisms—including plants and animals—obtain usable energy through aerobic respiration, the oxygen-requiring version of cellular respiration. Aerobic respiration consists of four major stages: glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. The third major stage, the citric acid cycle, is also known as the Krebs cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle.
The Citric Acid Cycle02:36

The Citric Acid Cycle

The citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle, consists of several energy-generating reactions that yield one ATP molecule, three NADH molecules, one FADH2 molecule, and two CO2 molecules.
The Citric Acid Cycle: Output01:28

The Citric Acid Cycle: Output

The citric acid cycle is termed an amphibolic pathway as it operates both anabolically and catabolically. The cyclic reactions balance the flux of the substrates to provide an optimal concentration of NADH and ATP to the cell.
Regulation of Citric Acid Cycle
The citric acid cycle is regulated in several ways, including feedback inhibition, regulation of enzyme activities, and associated anaplerotic or cataplerotic pathways.
The primary substrate of the TCA cycle—acetyl CoA—is produced by the...
Fruit Development, Structure, and Function01:58

Fruit Development, Structure, and Function

Fruits form from a mature flower ovary. As seeds develop from the ovules contained within, the ovary wall undergoes a series of complex changes to form fruit. In some fruits, such as soybeans, the ovary wall dries; in other fruits, such as grapes, it remains fleshy. In some cases, organs other than the ovary contribute to fruit formation; such fruits are called accessory fruits.
Solution Equilibrium and Saturation01:59

Solution Equilibrium and Saturation

Imagine adding a small amount of sugar to a glass of water, stirring until all the sugar has dissolved, and then adding a bit more. You can repeat this process until the sugar concentration of the solution reaches its natural limit, a limit determined primarily by the relative strengths of the solute-solute, solute-solvent, and solvent-solvent attractive forces. You can be certain that you have reached this limit because, no matter how long you stir the solution, undissolved sugar remains. The...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 12, 2026

Staining the Cytoplasmic Ca2+ with Fluo-4/AM in Apple Pulp
08:05

Staining the Cytoplasmic Ca2+ with Fluo-4/AM in Apple Pulp

Published on: November 6, 2021

Citrinin in fruit juices.

R Dietrich1, A Schmid, E Märtlbauer

  • 1University of Munich, Veterinärstr. 13, D-80539, Munich.

Mycotoxin Research
|April 23, 2013
PubMed
Summary

Citrinin mycotoxin is rarely found in foods, despite its common presence in Penicillium fungi. This study found low recovery rates for citrinin detection in fruit juices, suggesting challenges in accurate mycotoxin analysis.

Area of Science:

  • Food Science
  • Mycotoxicology
  • Analytical Chemistry

Background:

  • Citrinin-producing Penicillium species are widespread, yet citrinin occurrence in foodstuffs is rarely reported.
  • A notable discrepancy exists between the common detection of apple-rotting fungus P. expansum and the lack of citrinin data in apple-based foods.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To develop a sensitive method for detecting citrinin in apple and other fruit juices.
  • To investigate the challenges and recovery rates associated with citrinin analysis in complex food matrices.

Main Methods:

  • Indirect enzyme immunoassay (EIA) was employed for citrinin detection.
  • Extraction with dichloromethane and purification using immunoaffinity columns were tested for apple juice analysis.
  • Liquid-liquid partition was used for tomato juice sample preparation.

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Preparation of Naringenin Solution for In Vivo Application
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Preparation of Naringenin Solution for In Vivo Application

Published on: August 10, 2021

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Last Updated: May 12, 2026

Staining the Cytoplasmic Ca2+ with Fluo-4/AM in Apple Pulp
08:05

Staining the Cytoplasmic Ca2+ with Fluo-4/AM in Apple Pulp

Published on: November 6, 2021

Preparation of Naringenin Solution for In Vivo Application
08:18

Preparation of Naringenin Solution for In Vivo Application

Published on: August 10, 2021

Main Results:

  • Direct EIA analysis of apple juice failed due to matrix effects.
  • Extraction methods yielded poor citrinin recovery rates (20-30% for dichloromethane, 29.9% for immunoaffinity columns).
  • Low recovery rates (32.0%) were also observed for tomato juice using liquid-liquid partition.
  • Only trace amounts of citrinin (≤0.2 μg/L) were detected in 55 retail fruit and vegetable juices.

Conclusions:

  • Accurate and sensitive detection of citrinin in fruit juices is challenging due to significant matrix effects.
  • Current extraction and purification methods exhibit low recovery rates, necessitating further method development.
  • The low levels found in retail juices may reflect either limited contamination or analytical limitations.