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Related Concept Videos

Language and Cognition01:27

Language and Cognition

Language serves as a bridge between ideas and communication, influencing how individuals perceive and interact with the world. Psychologists have long debated whether language shapes thought or vice versa. This discussion gained grip with Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf in the 1940s, who proposed that language determines thought, a concept known as linguistic determinism. They suggested that the vocabulary and structure of a language influence how its speakers think and perceive reality.
Long-term Potentiation01:25

Long-term Potentiation

Long-term potentiation, or LTP, is one of the ways by which synaptic plasticity—changes in the strength of chemical synapses—can occur in the brain. LTP is the process of synaptic strengthening that occurs over time between pre and postsynaptic neuronal connections. The synaptic strengthening of LTP works in opposition to the synaptic weakening of long-term depression (LTD) and together are the main mechanisms that underlie learning and memory.
Hebbian LTP
LTP can occur when presynaptic neurons...
Long-term Potentiation01:35

Long-term Potentiation

Long-term potentiation, or LTP, is one of the ways by which synaptic plasticity—changes in the strength of chemical synapses—can occur in the brain. LTP is the process of synaptic strengthening that occurs over time between pre- and postsynaptic neuronal connections. The synaptic strengthening of LTP works in opposition to the synaptic weakening of long-term depression (LTD) and together are the main mechanisms that underlie learning and memory.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 11, 2026

Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) of Wernicke's and Broca's Areas in Studies of Language Learning and Word Acquisition
12:49

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Published on: July 13, 2019

Training-induced cortical plasticity compared between three tongue-training paradigms.

M Kothari1, P Svensson, J Jensen

  • 1Section of Clinical Oral Physiology, Department of Dentistry, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark. mohit.kothari@odontologi.au.dk

Neuroscience
|May 2, 2013
PubMed
Summary

Different tongue training methods impact brain plasticity differently. The Tongue Drive System (TDS) and tongue protrusion task (TPT) enhanced cortical plasticity, unlike therapeutic tongue exercises (TTE).

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Last Updated: May 11, 2026

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Motor Control
  • Cortical Plasticity

Background:

  • Investigating training-induced cortical plasticity is crucial for understanding motor learning.
  • Tongue-based training paradigms offer novel approaches for motor rehabilitation and cognitive enhancement.
  • Gender differences in motor cortex responses to training require further exploration.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To compare the effects of three distinct tongue-training paradigms on cortical plasticity.
  • To examine gender-specific differences in training-related neuroplasticity.
  • To assess subjective experiences (motivation, fun, pain, fatigue) associated with different tongue training methods.

Main Methods:

  • Forty-eight participants were randomized into three groups: therapeutic tongue exercises (TTE), Tongue Drive System (TDS), or tongue protrusion task (TPT).
  • Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was used to measure motor evoked potentials (MEPs) and motor cortex mapping before, immediately after, and 1 hour after training.
  • Subjective ratings of motivation, fun, pain, and fatigue were collected post-training.

Main Results:

  • TDS and TPT significantly lowered resting motor thresholds and increased tongue MEP amplitudes, indicating enhanced cortical plasticity, unlike TTE.
  • Men exhibited higher MEPs than women in the TDS group across all time points.
  • No significant changes were observed in the first dorsal interosseous (FDI) control muscle or tongue cortical motor map areas.
  • TDS was rated highest for motivation and fun, while TTE was perceived as most painful.

Conclusions:

  • Tongue-based training paradigms differentially modulate cortical plasticity, with TDS and TPT being more effective than TTE.
  • Gender influences motor cortex excitability in response to tongue training.
  • Subjective feedback highlights the importance of engagement and comfort in tongue-training interventions.