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Related Concept Videos

Nondisjunction01:29

Nondisjunction

During meiosis, chromosomes occasionally separate improperly. This occurs due to failure of homologous chromosome separation during meiosis I or failed sister chromatid separation during meiosis II. In some species, notably plants, nondisjunction can result in an organism with an entire additional set of chromosomes, which is called polyploidy. In humans, nondisjunction can occur during male or female gametogenesis and the resulting gametes possess one too many or one too few chromosomes.
Nondisjunction01:21

Nondisjunction

Nondisjunction is the failure of homologous chromosomes or sister chromatids to separate correctly and move to the opposite poles of the cells. This produces daughter cells with abnormal chromosome numbers.  Nondisjunction is common during anaphase I or anaphase II of meiosis.  Mutations in synaptonemal complex proteins that attach homologous chromosomes increase the chances of nondisjunction in anaphase I of meiosis I. In contrast, mutations in topoisomerases and condensins that hold sister...
Nondisjunction01:29

Nondisjunction

During meiosis, chromosomes occasionally separate improperly. This occurs due to failure of homologous chromosome separation during meiosis I or failed sister chromatid separation during meiosis II. In some species, notably plants, nondisjunction can result in an organism with an entire additional set of chromosomes, which is called polyploidy. In humans, nondisjunction can occur during male or female gametogenesis and the resulting gametes possess one too many or one too few chromosomes.
Meiosis I01:49

Meiosis I

Meiosis is a carefully orchestrated set of cell divisions, the goal of which—in humans—is to produce haploid sperm or eggs, each containing half the number of chromosomes present in somatic cells elsewhere in the body. Meiosis I is the first such division, and involves several key steps, among them: condensation of replicated chromosomes in diploid cells; the pairing of homologous chromosomes and their exchange of information; and finally, the separation of homologous chromosomes by a...
Trihybrid Crosses02:27

Trihybrid Crosses

Trihybrid Crosses
Some of Mendel’s crosses examined three pairs of contrasting characteristics. Such a cross is called a trihybrid cross. A trihybrid cross is a combination of three individual monohybrid crosses. For example, plant height (tall vs. short), seed shape (round vs. wrinkled), and seed color (yellow vs. green).
The F1 generation plants of a trihybrid cross are heterozygous for all three traits and produce eight gametes. Upon self-fertilization, these gametes have an equal chance to...
Meiosis vs. Mitosis02:57

Meiosis vs. Mitosis

Cell division is necessary for growth and reproduction in organisms. Mitosis aids cell growth and development by dividing somatic cells. In contrast, meiosis causes the division of germ cells and plays an essential role in sexual reproduction. Due to their unique functional requirements, mitosis and meiosis differ from each other in multiple aspects.
Before the start of mitosis and meiosis I, the cell synthesizes DNA, resulting in two homologous copies of each chromosome. DNA synthesis is...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 11, 2026

Microsatellite DNA Genotyping and Flow Cytometry Ploidy Analyses of Formalin-fixed Paraffin-embedded Hydatidiform Molar Tissues
11:54

Microsatellite DNA Genotyping and Flow Cytometry Ploidy Analyses of Formalin-fixed Paraffin-embedded Hydatidiform Molar Tissues

Published on: October 20, 2019

Tetraploidy in hydatidiform moles.

Linda Sundvall1, Helle Lund, Isa Niemann

  • 1Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus DK-8000, Denmark.

Human Reproduction (Oxford, England)
|May 2, 2013
PubMed
Summary

Most tetraploid hydatidiform moles (HMs) arise from somatic endoreduplication, not tetraploid zygotes. This study estimates the frequency of zygotic tetraploidy in HMs to be 0.7%.

Keywords:
fertilizationgeneticsgenotypehydatidiform moletetraploidy

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Manipulation of Ploidy in Caenorhabditis elegans
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Manipulation of Ploidy in Caenorhabditis elegans

Published on: March 15, 2018

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Last Updated: May 11, 2026

Microsatellite DNA Genotyping and Flow Cytometry Ploidy Analyses of Formalin-fixed Paraffin-embedded Hydatidiform Molar Tissues
11:54

Microsatellite DNA Genotyping and Flow Cytometry Ploidy Analyses of Formalin-fixed Paraffin-embedded Hydatidiform Molar Tissues

Published on: October 20, 2019

Manipulation of Ploidy in Caenorhabditis elegans
07:54

Manipulation of Ploidy in Caenorhabditis elegans

Published on: March 15, 2018

Area of Science:

  • Reproductive biology
  • Genetics
  • Gynecologic pathology

Background:

  • Tetraploidy in hydatidiform moles (HMs) is a known phenomenon, with varying estimates of its prevalence (2-28%).
  • The parental origin of tetraploid HMs is predominantly tri-maternal and tri-paternal (PPPM), but origins are not fully understood.
  • Previous evaluations of tetraploid HM origins have been limited.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the developmental origins of tetraploidy in hydatidiform moles (HMs).
  • To determine the frequency of different origins for tetraploid cells within HMs.
  • To clarify the mechanisms leading to tetraploidy in molar pregnancies.

Main Methods:

  • A cohort study analyzed 442 clinically suspected molar pregnancies collected between 1986 and 2010.
  • Karyotyping, flow cytometry (FC), and DNA-marker analysis were used to scrutinize 21 cases with tetraploid cells.
  • Samples were included if they had a macroscopic appearance of HM and at least 10 vesicular chorionic villi.

Main Results:

  • Of 20 evaluable HMs, 3 (15%) originated from tetraploid zygotes, confirmed by PPPM genotype and specific sex chromosomes (XXYY, XXXY).
  • The remaining 17 cases (85%) showed tetraploid cells likely arising from somatic endoreduplication of diploid cells (androgenetic, mosaic).
  • The estimated frequency of zygotic tetraploidy in HMs was 0.7%.

Conclusions:

  • The majority of tetraploid hydatidiform moles result from somatic endoreduplication, not from a tetraploid zygote.
  • A small proportion of tetraploid HMs originate from a tetraploid zygote, estimated at 0.7%.
  • Future studies should combine karyotyping, DNA-marker analysis, and FC to accurately determine HM tetraploidy and its origin.