Possessed by evil spirits: a history of seizures in infancy

For 4 millennia, seizures in infancy were believed to be of supranatural origin and were dealt with by incantations, exorcising rituals, and protective amulets. Instead of pursuing scientific research into their causes, gods, devils, mothers, wet nurses, midwives, or obstetricians were blamed. Help from protective gods and patron saints was sought, and amulets against the "evil eye" were recommended by physicians, mostly in the form of necklaces. Infants were despised and hidden away from the community. Among the medical conditions associated with seizures, those most prominent were dentition, gastrointestinal irritation, and "bad" mother's milk. Medical treatment consisted of cutting or rubbing the gums with a hare's brain during dentition, and applying peony or theriac. Even during the 20th century, when laboratory methods, electroencephalography, brain imaging, and powerful pharmaceutical techniques were available, effective treatment evolved empirically rather than systematically.