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The Anatomy of Chloroplasts

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Green algae and plants, including green stems and unripe fruit, harbor specialized organelles called chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis. They coordinate both stages of photosynthesis — the light-dependent reactions and the light-independent reactions. The light-dependent reactions use sunlight to release oxygen and produce chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH, and the light-independent reactions capture CO2 and use ATP and NADPH to produce sugar.
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Although structurally similar to photosystem II (PSII), photosystem I (PSI) is has a different electron supplier and electron acceptor.
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Anatomy of Chloroplasts

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Excavata is a diverse group of protists that includes both chemoorganotrophic and phototrophic species, with some thriving in anaerobic environments. Among the key groups within Excavata are diplomonads and parabasalids, which are flagellated protists that lack mitochondria and chloroplasts. These microorganisms typically inhabit anoxic environments, such as the intestines of animals, where they exist either symbiotically or as parasites, relying on fermentation for energy production. Some...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 11, 2026

A Method for Characterizing Embryogenesis in Arabidopsis

A Method for Characterizing Embryogenesis in Arabidopsis

Published on: August 4, 2017

Chloroembryos: a unique photosynthesis system.

Jos T Puthur¹, A M Shackira, P Pardha Saradhi

¹Plant Physiology and Biochemistry Division, Department of Botany, University of Calicut, C.U. Campus P.O., Kerala 673635, India. jtputhur@yahoo.com

Journal of Plant Physiology

|May 28, 2013

Summary

Photosynthetic embryos, or chloroembryos, recycle carbon dioxide and produce essential oxygen and energy molecules during seed development. This shade-adapted photosynthesis helps embryos survive in high-sugar, low-oxygen environments.

Keywords:

3-(3,4-dichlorophenyl)-1,1-dimethylurea ABA Chloroembryos DCMU FAS HPLC LHCP NADP-GAPDH OAA PEPC PFD PS I PS II Photosynthesis Q(B)Rubisco Seed Solute potential Thylakoids abscisic acid fatty acid synthesis glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase high performance liquid chromatography light harvesting complex protein oxaloacetate phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase photon flux density photosystem I photosystem II ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase secondary quinone solute potential ψ(s)

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$Studying the Supramolecular Organization of Photosynthetic Membranes within Freeze-fractured Leaf Tissues by Cryo-scanning Electron Microscopy$

Studying the Supramolecular Organization of Photosynthetic Membranes within Freeze-fractured Leaf Tissues by Cryo-scanning Electron Microscopy

Published on: June 23, 2016

Area of Science:

Plant Physiology
Embryology
Photosynthesis Research

Background:

Some angiosperm embryos possess chlorophyll and can photosynthesize, a stage termed chloroembryos.
This embryonic photosynthesis occurs within protective tissues, adapted to shade and high osmotic conditions.
Understanding chloroembryos is crucial for seed development and plant survival strategies.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the structure and function of chloroplasts in chloroembryos.
To analyze pigment composition, photochemical activities, and carbon assimilation rates.
To elucidate the shade-adaptive features and osmotic stress tolerance mechanisms.

Main Methods:

Detailed structural analysis of chloroembryo chloroplasts.
Pigment composition and photochemical activity measurements.
Assessment of carbon assimilation rates and identification of unique polypeptides.

Main Results:

Chloroembryos exhibit efficient photosynthetic components capable of recycling respired CO2.
Embryonic photosynthesis generates energy-rich molecules and vital oxygen, supporting biosynthesis and overcoming low-oxygen conditions.
Unique thylakoid polypeptides in chloroembryos suggest adaptations for high osmotic strength tolerance.

Conclusions:

Embryonic photosynthesis plays a significant role in seed carbon economy, energy production, and oxygen supply during development.
Chloroembryos possess specialized mechanisms to cope with high osmotic stress, potentially offering insights into broader photosynthetic stress tolerance.
Further research into chloroembryo adaptations can enhance understanding of plant survival in challenging environments.