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Related Concept Videos

Adrenergic Receptors (Adrenoceptors): Classification01:27

Adrenergic Receptors (Adrenoceptors): Classification

Adrenergic receptors, or adrenoceptors, respond to the autonomic neurotransmitter noradrenaline and other endogenous catecholamine agonists. They are classified into two main families, α and β, based on their pharmacological response and are further subdivided depending on their location, elicited response, and affinity to specific agonists or antagonists.
α-Adrenoceptors
α-Adrenoceptors are classified into two main subtypes: α1 and α2. The α1 adrenoceptors, which are found on postsynaptic...
Adrenergic Receptors: ɑ Subtype01:31

Adrenergic Receptors: ɑ Subtype

Adrenoceptors are classified into α and ꞵ classes based on their potencies to catecholamine agonists. α-adrenoceptors show the following order of catecholamine potency:
Adrenaline ≥ Noradrenaline >> Isoprenaline
α-adrenoceptors are further divided into α1 and α2-adrenoceptors.
α1-Adrenoceptors: These receptors are located postsynaptically on the effector organs and cause constriction of smooth muscle mediated by activation of phospholipase C—inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate...
Adrenergic Agonists: Therapeutic Classification01:18

Adrenergic Agonists: Therapeutic Classification

Adrenergic agonists can be classified based on their therapeutic uses and mechanisms of action. They serve various purposes in clinical applications.
Vasopressor or pressor agents: They increase blood pressure and function as cardiac stimulants. Examples include endogenous catecholamines (norepinephrine and dopamine) and synthetic agents (phenylephrine).
Bronchodilators: β2-agonists can relax bronchial muscles and widen airways. They are commonly used for treating obstructive pulmonary...
Adrenergic Neurons: Neurotransmission01:27

Adrenergic Neurons: Neurotransmission

Postganglionic sympathetic fibers (except those supplying the sweat glands) releasing noradrenaline or norepinephrine are called noradrenergic or adrenergic neurons. Noradrenaline, dopamine, adrenaline, or epinephrine are collectively called "catecholamines" as they contain a catechol moiety and an amine side chain. The five stages of neurotransmitter release involve their synthesis, storage, release, reuptake and metabolism.
Synthesis: Catecholamine synthesis requires tyrosine, which is taken...
Adrenergic Receptors: β Subtype01:26

Adrenergic Receptors: β Subtype

β-adrenoceptors have varied sensitivities towards adrenaline, noradrenaline, and isoprenaline. The order of agonist potency is as follows:
Isoprenaline > Adrenaline > Noradrenaline
Neurotransmitter binding to these receptors causes activation of adenylyl cyclase resulting in increased concentrations of cAMP and modulation of calcium ion channels within the cell. They are further classified into β1, β2, and β3 subtypes.
β1-adrenoceptors: β1-adrenoceptors have equal affinities for...
Adrenergic Antagonists: Chemistry and Classification of ɑ-Receptor Blockers01:17

Adrenergic Antagonists: Chemistry and Classification of ɑ-Receptor Blockers

Adrenergic antagonists, or sympatholytics, inhibit adrenoceptor activation driven by catecholamines or agonists. Based on their adrenoceptor specificity, adrenergic blockers can be categorized into two primary groups: α-adrenergic blockers (α-blockers) and β-adrenergic blockers (β-blockers). α-blockers interact with α1 and α2 subtypes of α-adrenoceptors.
Nonselective α-blockers: Nonselective α-blockers contain haloalkylamine or imidazoline moieties. Phenoxybenzamine, with a haloalkylamine...

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HPLC-based Assay to Monitor Extracellular Nucleotide/Nucleoside Metabolism in Human Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Cells
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Is AD a homogeneous nosologic entity? Yes.

P Martinez-Martin1

  • 1Alzheimer Disease Research Unit, CIEN Foundation, Carlos III Institute of Health, Alzheimer Center Reina Sofia Foundation, Madrid, Spain, pmartinez@fundacioncien.es.

Journal of Neural Transmission (Vienna, Austria : 1996)
|July 6, 2013
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative dementia with unknown causes for most cases. Current diagnostic criteria for AD are accurate but future advances may offer more precise definitions.

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Area of Science:

  • Neurology
  • Neuroscience
  • Pathology

Background:

  • Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the leading cause of dementia, characterized by neurodegeneration.
  • Etiology and pathogenesis remain largely unknown for over 95% of sporadic cases.
  • Key hypotheses involve amyloid cascade and tau protein phosphorylation, leading to senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the current understanding of Alzheimer's disease (AD) diagnosis and classification.
  • To highlight the variability in AD's clinical presentation and progression.
  • To emphasize the need for comprehensive diagnostic approaches in the absence of definitive biomarkers.

Main Methods:

  • Review of existing literature on Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis and diagnosis.
  • Analysis of current clinicopathological concepts and diagnostic criteria.
  • Discussion of the limitations and variability in disease presentation and progression.

Main Results:

  • The relationship between proposed mechanisms (amyloid, tau) and clinical outcomes is not always specific.
  • Age at onset, clinical presentation, and disease duration in AD are highly variable.
  • Current diagnostic criteria for AD have an accuracy of approximately 80-90%.

Conclusions:

  • Alzheimer's disease (AD) is currently defined by specific neuropathological and clinical features, despite unknown etiology and variable pathogenesis.
  • A comprehensive approach is necessary for diagnosing AD, considering its impact on medial temporal lobe structures, cognitive deficits, and dementia.
  • Future scientific advancements in genetics, proteomics, and metabolomics are expected to enable more precise AD definitions.