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Menopause

Menopause

Menopause, a natural biological process marking the end of a woman's fertility, typically occurs between the fifth and sixth decade of life. This phase is characterized by the exhaustion of the ovarian follicle pool, leading to less responsive ovaries despite the high levels of Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH). The consequential decrease in estrogen production results in symptoms like hot flashes, heavy sweating, headaches, hair loss, muscle pains, vaginal...

Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle

Hormonal Regulation of the Menstrual Cycle

The ovarian cycle regulates endometrial changes throughout a single menstrual cycle via the coordinated action of gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH) and gonadotrophins.
At puberty, GnRH begins a pulsatile release pattern, which triggers the anterior pituitary gland to secrete follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). The frequency and amplitude of GnRH pulses vary across the menstrual cycle, with faster pulses favoring LH release and slower pulses favoring FSH release.

Hormonal Control of the Ovarian Cycle

Hormonal Control of the Ovarian Cycle

The ovarian cycle is meticulously regulated by the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. This cycle orchestrates the release of a mature oocyte, essential for reproduction.
Before puberty, the hypothalamus releases GnRH in a low frequency, low amplitude pulsatile manner. This along with the immature hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis activity, results in low estrogen levels and the absence of a fully functional ovarian cycle. At puberty, GnRH secretion increases in both frequency and...

Regulation of Food Intake

Regulation of Food Intake

Short-term regulation of food intake primarily involves neural signals from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, blood nutrient levels, and GI tract hormones. Communication between the gut and brain via vagal nerve fibers plays a significant role in evaluating the contents of the gut. Clinical studies have shown that protein ingestion produces a more prolonged response in these nerve fibers compared to an equivalent amount of glucose. Additionally, the activation of stretch receptors caused by GI...

Major Hormones and Their Functions

Major Hormones and Their Functions

Hormones, the biochemical messengers produced by endocrine glands, are pivotal in regulating bodily functions and maintaining homeostasis. Each hormone's balance is crucial; imbalances can lead to significant physiological disruptions. Major hormones include oxytocin, cortisol, epinephrine, estrogen, testosterone, thyroxine, growth hormone, insulin, and glucagon.
Oxytocin, produced in the hypothalamus and released by the pituitary gland, plays a role in social bonding, childbirth, and lactation.

Hormonal Regulation

Hormonal Regulation

The renin-aldosterone system is an endocrine system which guides the renal absorption of water and electrolytes, thus managing blood pressure and osmoregulation. Activation of the system begins in the kidneys with a small cluster of cells adjacent to the afferent and efferent blood vessels of the renal corpuscle. As the nephrons are filtering blood, juxtaglomerular cells monitor blood pressure. If they detect a decrease in pressure, they release the hormone renin into the bloodstream.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 9, 2026

A Method to Study the Impact of Chemically-induced Ovarian Failure on Exercise Capacity and Cardiac Adaptation in Mice

A Method to Study the Impact of Chemically-induced Ovarian Failure on Exercise Capacity and Cardiac Adaptation in Mice

Published on: April 7, 2014

Hormonal changes in menopause and orexin-a action.

Giovanni Messina¹, Andrea Viggiano, Vincenzo De Luca

¹Department of Experimental Medicine, Section of Human Physiology and Clinical Dietetic Service, Second University of Naples, Via Costantinopoli 16, I-80138 Naples, Italy.

Obstetrics and Gynecology International

|July 11, 2013

Summary

Menopause is linked to weight gain due to estrogen depletion. Increased orexin-A levels during menopause may explain appetite changes and cardiovascular risks.

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Area of Science:

Endocrinology
Neuroscience
Reproductive Biology

Background:

Menopause involves physiological changes, often leading to weight gain and obesity-related diseases.
Factors like estrogen depletion, reduced resting energy expenditure (REE), and aging contribute to menopausal weight gain.
Orexin-A plasma levels increase as estrogen levels decrease during menopause.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the role of orexins in mediating menopausal symptoms.
To explore the connection between postmenopausal hypoestrogenism and changes in appetite and weight.
To assess the potential link between orexins, menopausal syndrome, and cardiovascular risk.

Main Methods:

Observational study correlating hormone levels with physiological changes.
Measurement of plasma orexin-A levels in menopausal and premenopausal women.
Analysis of associations between orexin-A, estrogen levels, body weight, and cardiovascular risk factors.

Main Results:

A significant increase in orexin-A plasma levels was observed during menopause, correlating with lower estrogen levels.
Orexin-A, a hypothalamic neuropeptide, regulates feeding behavior, sleep-wakefulness, and neuroendocrine functions.
Orexin-A may serve as a crucial link between estrogen deficiency and menopausal manifestations like appetite and weight changes.

Conclusions:

Orexin-A elevation during menopause presents a potential mechanism for altered appetite and weight gain.
Orexin-A's role in neuroendocrine homeostasis suggests its involvement in the broader menopausal syndrome.
Targeting orexin pathways could offer new strategies for managing menopausal weight changes and associated cardiovascular risks.