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Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Low blood levels of the thyroid hormones — triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) — signal the hypothalamus to release the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then reaches the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) into the bloodstream.
Upon reaching the thyroid gland, TSH stimulates the follicular cells' active uptake of iodide ions from the blood. The ions diffuse to the apical surface of the cells and are oxidized to iodine. The iodine is then...

Functions of Thyroid Hormones

Functions of Thyroid Hormones

The thyroid hormone (TH) plays a pivotal role in the intricate orchestration of physiological processes, exerting profound effects on development, metabolism, and homeostasis throughout different life stages.
TH is indispensable for the normal development and maturation of the skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems during fetal and childhood growth. It facilitates bone mineral turnover and regulates protein synthesis in developing tissues, contributing significantly to overall growth and...

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hypothyroidism is a disorder characterized by insufficient production of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy balance, and multiple organ systems.TypesHypothyroidism is classified based on the level of dysfunction. Primary hypothyroidism results from intrinsic thyroid gland dysfunction, causing reduced hormone production despite normal or increased stimulation. Secondary hypothyroidism arises from inadequate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion by the pituitary. Tertiary...

The Thyroid Gland

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
The follicles have a central cavity lined by simple cuboidal to squamous epithelial cells called follicular cells. These cells produce the glycoprotein...

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

Hyperthyroidism is a type of thyrotoxicosis characterized by the thyroid gland's overproduction of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). This hormone excess increases the basal metabolic rate and enhances sensitivity to catecholamines.DiagnosisDiagnosis is based on clinical features and biochemical testing. It typically shows suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels below 0.4 mIU/L, with elevated free T3 and/or T4. Additional tests, including thyroid...

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH receptors...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 9, 2026

Synchronous Triplanar Reconstruction Integrated with Color Doppler Mapping for Precise and Rapid Localization of Thyroid Lesions

Synchronous Triplanar Reconstruction Integrated with Color Doppler Mapping for Precise and Rapid Localization of Thyroid Lesions

Published on: February 9, 2024

Longitudinal assessment of thyroid function in pregnancy.

Elif I Ekinci¹, Zhong X Lu, Ken Sikaris

¹Department of Endocrinology, Austin Health, Melbourne, Australia.

Annals of Clinical Biochemistry

|July 23, 2013

Summary

Establishing trimester-specific thyroid function reference intervals is crucial for accurate pregnancy monitoring. This study provides new reference intervals for thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and free thyroxine (fT4) to prevent misclassification during pregnancy.

Keywords:

Beckman Dxl 800 analyser Pregnancy free T3 free T4 thyroid function thyroid stimulating hormone trimester-specific reference intervals

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Last Updated: May 9, 2026

Synchronous Triplanar Reconstruction Integrated with Color Doppler Mapping for Precise and Rapid Localization of Thyroid Lesions

Synchronous Triplanar Reconstruction Integrated with Color Doppler Mapping for Precise and Rapid Localization of Thyroid Lesions

Published on: February 9, 2024

An Ex vivo Culture System to Study Thyroid Development

An Ex vivo Culture System to Study Thyroid Development

Published on: June 6, 2014

Area of Science:

Clinical Chemistry
Endocrinology
Reproductive Medicine

Background:

Trimester-specific reference intervals (RIs) for thyroid function tests are lacking for Beckman Dxl 800 analysers.
Accurate thyroid function monitoring during pregnancy is essential for maternal and fetal health.

Purpose of the Study:

To establish trimester-specific reference intervals (RIs) for thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH) and free thyroxine (fT4) using Beckman Dxl 800 analysers.
To track intraindividual changes in thyroid function throughout pregnancy.

Main Methods:

Longitudinal study of 130 healthy pregnant women without antithyroid peroxidase antibodies.
Thyroid function tests (TSH, fT4) measured at trimester 1, 2, 3, and postpartum.
Intraindividual changes tracked in a subgroup (n=47) using postpartum as baseline.

Main Results:

Established trimester-specific RIs for TSH and fT4.
Significant proportion of fT4 values fell below non-pregnancy lower limits in T2 (36%) and T3 (41%).
High correlation observed for TSH and fT4 between trimesters and baseline (P < 0.001).

Conclusions:

Trimester-specific RIs are necessary to prevent misclassification of thyroid function during pregnancy.
TSH and fT4 levels generally track consistently on the same side of the median from baseline throughout pregnancy.