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Related Concept Videos

Muscles that Move the Arm01:31

Muscles that Move the Arm

Nine muscles are involved in arm movements. Two of these, the pectoralis major and latissimus dorsi, originate from the axial skeleton and are called axial muscles. The other seven originate from the scapula and are called the scapular muscles.
The pectoralis major has two origins. Its clavicular head originates on the medial half of the clavicle. In contrast, the sternocostal head originates on the costal cartilages of ribs 1-6, the sternum, and the aponeurosis of the external oblique of the...
Muscles of the Shoulder01:23

Muscles of the Shoulder

The muscles surrounding the shoulder girdle, including the clavicle and scapula, primarily stabilize the scapula. This stable base allows other muscles to move the humerus effectively. Scapular movements often mirror those of the humerus and extend its range of motion. For instance, raising the arm above the head would not be feasible without simultaneous upward rotation of the scapula.
Anterior Thoracic Muscles
The anterior thoracic muscles include the serratus anterior, subclavius, and...
Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus01:19

Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus

The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...
Muscle Coordination and Action01:24

Muscle Coordination and Action

Muscle coordination is a complex and finely tuned process essential for smooth and purposeful movements like flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, and rotation. The human body orchestrates the actions of various muscles working in concert, each with a specific role. Four functional types describe how muscles work together: agonist, antagonist, synergist, and fixator.
Agonists
Agonist muscles, often called prime movers, are the primary muscles responsible for producing a specific movement.
Muscles that Move the Head01:19

Muscles that Move the Head

The muscles that move the head are a dynamic and complex group of structures that work together to facilitate a wide range of head movements, including rotation, flexion, extension, and lateral bending.
The bilateral sternocleidomastoid, or SCM, and the suprahyoid and infrahyoid muscles are significant head flexors. The SCM muscles originate at the sternum and clavicle and attach to the mastoid process of the temporal bone. The SCM contracts bilaterally to bend the head forward, whereas...
Axial and Appendicular Muscles01:18

Axial and Appendicular Muscles

Skeletal muscles, the key players in our body's movement, can be classified into two groups based on their location and function: axial muscles and appendicular muscles. These classifications reflect the primary roles the muscles play in the body's structure and movement.
Axial Muscles
Axial muscles, situated along the body's midline, are intricately connected to the axial skeleton, which includes the skull, spine, ribs, and sternum. These muscles facilitate facial expressions and play a...

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The biomechanics of knuckle-walking II: muscle activity of chimpanzee extrinsic hand and wrist muscles.

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Chimpanzee hind limb muscle electromyographic activity patterns during locomotion.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 8, 2026

Development of a Rabbit Chronic-Like Rotator Cuff Injury Model for Study of Fibrosis and Muscular Fatty Degeneration
05:20

Development of a Rabbit Chronic-Like Rotator Cuff Injury Model for Study of Fibrosis and Muscular Fatty Degeneration

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Rotator cuff muscle function and its relation to scapular morphology in apes.

Susan G Larson1, Jack T Stern

  • 1Department of Anatomical Sciences, Stony Brook University School of Medicine, Stony Brook, NY 11794-8081, USA.

Journal of Human Evolution
|August 24, 2013
PubMed
Summary

Scapular fossa size differences in apes do not predict rotator cuff muscle function during locomotion. This challenges assumptions linking shoulder bone shape to ape shoulder muscle activity and movement patterns.

Keywords:
Electromyography (EMG)HominoideaLocomotionShoulder morphology

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Area of Science:

  • Primate anatomy
  • Functional morphology
  • Biomechanics

Background:

  • Scapular morphology differences among primates are often linked to locomotor habits.
  • Existing studies suggest a correlation between scapular fossa ratios and shoulder function, particularly overhead use.
  • However, comparative analyses of ape scapulae have yielded paradoxical findings, questioning these functional interpretations.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the functional interpretation of scapular morphology differences in apes.
  • To test the hypothesis that relative scapular fossa size predicts rotator cuff muscle activity during locomotion.
  • To compare electromyography (EMG) data of rotator cuff muscles in orangutans and gibbons with existing chimpanzee data.

Main Methods:

  • Electromyography (EMG) was used to record activity patterns of all four rotator cuff muscles in orangutans and gibbons.
  • Data from orangutans and gibbons were compared with previously published EMG data for chimpanzees.
  • Relative scapular fossa size was analyzed in relation to rotator cuff muscle mass and cross-sectional area.

Main Results:

  • EMG results revealed consistent activity patterns for rotator cuff muscles across orangutans, gibbons, and chimpanzees during locomotion.
  • These findings do not support inferences of differing rotator cuff function based on relative scapular fossa size.
  • Relative scapular fossa size was found to be a poor predictor of rotator cuff muscle mass and cross-sectional area in apes.

Conclusions:

  • Relative scapular fossa size is not a reliable indicator of rotator cuff muscle function or its importance in locomotor differences among apes.
  • The study challenges the long-held assumption that scapular shape directly reflects specific shoulder muscle adaptations for locomotion.
  • The scapular spine's role in structural reinforcement may offer an alternative explanation for observed morphological disparities.