Strategies of Echinococcus species responses to immune attacks: implications for therapeutic tool development

Echinococcus species have been studied as a model to investigate parasite-host interactions. Echinococcus spp. can actively communicate dynamically with a host to facilitate infection, growth and proliferation partially via secretion of molecules, especially in terms of harmonization of host immune attacks. This review systematically outlines our current knowledge of how the Echinococcus species have evolved to adapt to their host's microenvironment. This understanding of parasite-host interplay has implications in profound appreciation of parasite plasticity and is informative in designing novel and effective tools including vaccines and drugs for the treatment of echinococcosis and other diseases.