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Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus

Bones of the Upper Limb: Humerus

The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...

Bones of the Upper Limb: Ulna

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The ulna and radius are parallel bones of the antebrachium or the forearm. The ulna lies medially and consists of a bony tip called the olecranon process at its proximal end. This hook-like projection articulates with the olecranon fossa of the humerus and forms the "hinged" ulnohumeral part of the elbow joint. This joint facilitates forearm extension and flexion while preventing its hyperextension. Similarly, the coronoid process, another bony projection on the proximal/anterior side of the...

Spinal Nerves: Plexus I

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Nerve plexuses are networks of interlacing nerves that serve as communication hubs to distribute and organize nerve action across various body regions. The nerve plexuses are organized into the cervical plexus located in the neck region, brachial plexus in the shoulder area, lumbar plexus found in the lower back, sacral plexus situated in the pelvis, and coccygeal plexus located in the coccygeal region.
The Cervical Plexus
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Bones of the Upper Limb: Radius

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The radius is longer of the two bones that make up the human antebrachium or forearm. At the proximal end, the radius articulates with the capitulum of the humerus and the radial notch of the ulna to form the elbow joint. At the distal end, the radius articulates with the ulna via the ulnar notch, forming the distal radioulnar joint. Distally, the radius also attaches to the carpal wrist bones (scaphoid and lunate) to form the radiocarpal joint.
The radius has a nail-shaped head, and a short...

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The subclavian artery transitions into the axillary artery as it exits the chest and enters the axillary region. This artery is critical for supplying blood to the shoulder area, including the head of the humerus, through the humeral circumflex arteries. As the vessel continues into the upper arm or brachium, it becomes the brachial artery. This artery plays a key role in vascularizing the brachial region and bifurcates at the elbow into several branches. These branches include the deep...

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The muscles that move the forearms can be divided into four groups: forearm flexors, forearm extensors, forearm pronators, and forearm supinators. The flexors and extensors act on the elbow joint, while the pronators and supinators act on the radioulnar joints.
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The biceps brachii, brachialis, and brachioradialis are forearm flexors. The biceps brachii is made up of two heads. Its long head originates at the supraglenoid tubercle of the scapula, whereas that of the short head is...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 8, 2026

Novel Triple-Loop Technique for Suturing TFCC Injuries without Transosseous Tunnel

Novel Triple-Loop Technique for Suturing TFCC Injuries without Transosseous Tunnel

Published on: May 23, 2025

Soft-tissue coverage of the elbow.

Milan Stevanovic¹, Frances Sharpe

¹Los Angeles, Calif. From the Department of Orthopedics, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine; and Kaiser Permanente Southern California.

Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery

|August 30, 2013

Summary

Reconstructing the elbow requires effective soft-tissue coverage for exposed structures. Muscle and fasciocutaneous flaps offer reliable options for defect repair, minimizing complications and improving outcomes.

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Published on: May 23, 2025

Area of Science:

Orthopedic Surgery
Plastic Surgery
Reconstructive Surgery

Background:

The elbow's soft-tissue envelope is crucial for function and protection.
Exposed bone, tendon, or implants due to injury, infection, or tumors necessitate prompt soft-tissue coverage.
Various reconstructive options exist, each with unique benefits and drawbacks.

Purpose of the Study:

To review and emphasize reliable soft-tissue reconstruction techniques for the elbow.
To guide the selection of appropriate coverage methods based on defect characteristics.
To highlight muscle and fasciocutaneous flaps for their predictable outcomes and vascularity.

Main Methods:

Review of current literature on elbow soft-tissue reconstruction.
Emphasis on muscle flaps and fasciocutaneous flaps.
Discussion of flap selection criteria and donor-site considerations.

Main Results:

Muscle and fasciocutaneous flaps demonstrate reliable vascularity.
These flaps provide predictable outcomes for elbow defect coverage.
Proper flap selection can minimize donor-site morbidity.

Conclusions:

Muscle and fasciocutaneous flaps are valuable tools for elbow soft-tissue reconstruction.
Tailoring flap choice to defect size and patient factors is essential for successful outcomes.
Understanding reconstructive options improves the management of complex elbow injuries.