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States of Water01:23

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Water exists in any one of the three classical states: solid (ice), liquid (water), and gas (steam or water vapor). The state of water depends on i) the intermolecular forces that draw molecules together and ii) the kinetic energy that leads to movements that pull them apart.
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The torque-free motion refers to the movement of a rigid body in space when no external torques are acting upon it. This type of motion can be observed in environments where there are no external forces or frictions, like in outer space. For example, a rotation of Mars in space is a torque-free motion. Mars is an axisymmetric object, meaning it has an axis of symmetry along which it rotates, designated as the z-axis. The rotating frame of reference is defined such that the center of mass of...
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Concrete structures in cold climates, such as those along roadsides, can retain moisture. This moisture makes them susceptible to frost-related damage when temperatures fall below freezing. Adding moisture worsens the damage during temperature fluctuations, leading to repeated freezing and thawing. De-icing salts, spread over these structures to melt ice, add to the freeze-thaw cycle, and draw even more moisture into the concrete.
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Concrete's susceptibility to frost damage during freeze-thaw cycles demands strategic measures to enhance its frost resistance. Employing techniques like air entrainment, adjusting the water-cement ratio, proper curing, and selecting appropriate aggregates are essential.
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The outermost layers of prokaryotic cells play a critical role in their survival, virulence, and interaction with the environment. These layers, often composed of polysaccharides, polypeptides, or proteins, form protective and adhesive structures that vary in organization and function.Capsules and Slime LayersCapsules are highly organized, tightly bound layers that firmly attach to the bacterial cell wall. Capsules are usually made of polysaccharides, though some are made of polypeptides. These...
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Spark Plasma Sintering Apparatus Used for the Formation of Strontium Titanate Bicrystals
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A rigid and weathered ice shell on Titan.

D Hemingway1, F Nimmo, H Zebker

  • 1Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, University of California Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, Santa Cruz, California 95064, USA. djheming@ucsc.edu

Nature
|August 30, 2013
PubMed
Summary

Titan

Area of Science:

  • Planetary Science
  • Geophysics
  • Astrobiology

Background:

  • Titan, Saturn's largest moon, is believed to possess a global subsurface ocean.
  • The thickness of its outer ice shell is estimated between 50 to 200 kilometers.
  • Previous models suggested a thin, weak ice shell, potentially driven by convection or isostatic compensation.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To investigate the structural properties of Titan's ice shell.
  • To reconcile gravity and topography data at long wavelengths.
  • To assess the rigidity and geological activity of Titan's outer shell.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of gravity and topography data at long wavelengths, excluding tidal and rotational effects.
  • Modeling of mass anomalies within the ice shell.

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  • Correlation analysis between gravity field and surface elevation.

    • Main Results:

    • A significant inverse correlation was found between gravity and topography at long wavelengths.
    • Negative gravity anomalies, attributed to thickening at the ice shell base, dominate over positive anomalies from surface features.
    • The findings necessitate a rigid ice shell with an elastic thickness greater than 40 km and substantial surface erosion/deposition.

    Conclusions:

    • Titan's ice shell is substantially rigid and not geologically active with low rigidity.
    • The observed gravity-topography correlation is explained by crustal thickening at the ice shell's base.
    • Titan's moment of inertia may be higher than previously estimated, indicating less central condensation.