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Fluorescence in situ hybridization, or FISH, was developed in the early 1980s and has quickly become one of the most widely used techniques in cytogenetics. Labeled probes are used to bind complementary DNA or RNA sequences on a chromosome or in a region within a cell. Earlier, the probes could only be obtained by cloning or reverse transcription of a DNA template. Currently, the probe oligonucleotides can be synthesized synthetically. Additionally, with the advancement of optical techniques,...
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The F distribution was named after Sir Ronald Fisher, an English statistician. The F statistic is a ratio (a fraction) with two sets of degrees of freedom; one for the numerator and one for the denominator. The F distribution is derived from the Student's t distribution. The values of the F distribution are squares of the corresponding values of the t distribution. One-Way ANOVA expands the t test for comparing more than two groups. The scope of that derivation is beyond the level of this...
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Gain and phase shift are properties of linear circuits that describe the effect a circuit has on a sinusoidal input voltage or current. The circuit's behavior that contains reactive elements will depend on the frequency of the input sinusoid. As a result, it is observed that the gain and phase shift will all be frequency functions.
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Forgetting is an intrinsic aspect of human memory, characterized by the gradual loss or inaccessibility of information over time. Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneering psychologist, extensively studied this phenomenon and formulated the forgetting curve. This curve illustrates that memory loss occurs rapidly immediately after learning and then decelerates over time. Several mechanisms contribute to forgetting, including encoding failure, storage decay, retrieval failure, and interference.
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The function that decreases as the input becomes very large provides a clear example of how mathematical functions can behave at extreme values. When the input increases continuously, the output becomes smaller and smaller, getting closer to a particular fixed value. Although the output never actually reaches this value, it moves nearer to it without limit. This behavior is a fundamental concept in understanding how functions behave as the input grows indefinitely. The graphical representation...
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Live Cell Imaging of F-actin Dynamics via Fluorescent Speckle Microscopy FSM
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Forever (FGF) 21.

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  • 1Division of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Molecular Medicine, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA, and the Department of Neurobiology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois, USA.

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Fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21) and β-Klotho link nutrition to longevity. New studies reveal FGF21 directly interacts with the brain

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Area of Science:

  • Metabolic signaling pathways
  • Endocrinology
  • Chronobiology

Background:

  • The fibroblast growth factor 21 (FGF21)-β-Klotho pathway regulates metabolic adaptation to fasting and starvation.
  • This pathway is recognized for its role in connecting nutrition, growth, reproduction, and longevity.

Discussion:

  • Recent research in mice demonstrates a direct interaction between FGF21 and the brain's circadian clock.
  • This interaction is crucial for coordinating physiological activity and reproductive functions during fasting periods.

Key Insights:

  • FGF21 signaling extends beyond metabolic control to influence circadian rhythms.
  • The interplay between FGF21 and the circadian clock is a key component of the adaptive response to nutrient deprivation.

Outlook:

  • Further investigation into the FGF21-circadian clock axis may reveal novel therapeutic targets for metabolic and age-related disorders.
  • Understanding this pathway's role in reproduction and longevity could offer insights into extending healthspan.