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Related Concept Videos

Development of Human Microbiota01:30

Development of Human Microbiota

The human microbiota begins developing at birth and undergoes continual change as we age. Infancy marks a critical period of microbial sensitivity, offering a “window of opportunity” during which beneficial microbes help mature the immune system. By age three, children typically develop a more stable and diverse microbial community. Newborns acquire microbes from their immediate environment; vaginal delivery favors maternal vaginal microbes, while cesarean births favor microbes from the skin...
Introduction to the Human Microbiota01:22

Introduction to the Human Microbiota

Microorganisms colonize various regions of the human body, including the mouth, nasal passages, throat, stomach, intestines, urogenital tract, and skin. The total number of microbial cells is estimated to range from 10¹³ to 10¹⁴—comparable to, or exceeding, the number of human somatic cells. This host–microbiome relationship has led to the conceptualization of humans as supraorganisms, wherein microbial communities perform vital roles in development, immunity, and disease...
Microbiome of the Eye01:22

Microbiome of the Eye

The human eye has a specialized microbiota that reflects its unique anatomical and immunological environment. This low-biomass microbial community predominantly colonizes the conjunctiva and eyelid margins, playing a vital role in ocular surface homeostasis and defense. Despite its proximity to the richly colonized facial skin, the ocular surface maintains a distinct microbial profile due to continuous mechanical and biochemical defense mechanisms.The conjunctival surface hosts fewer microbial...
Development of the Oral Microbiota01:28

Development of the Oral Microbiota

The establishment of the oral microbiome begins before birth, challenging the long-held belief that the fetal oral cavity is sterile. The presence of oral microbes such as Streptococcus and Fusobacterium in amniotic fluid suggests that microbial exposure may occur in utero, potentially through translocation from the maternal oral or gastrointestinal tract. This early colonization primes the neonatal immune system and sets the stage for subsequent microbial succession. Maternal health,...
Microenvironments01:22

Microenvironments

Microorganisms inhabit highly localized spaces known as microenvironments, which are defined by distinct physical and chemical characteristics. These include oxygen concentration, pH, temperature, light availability, and nutrient levels. The conditions within a microenvironment can differ markedly from those in the surrounding area and significantly influence microbial growth, metabolism, and community structure.Microenvironments often display sharp physicochemical gradients over small spatial...
Microbes in the Production of Fermented Foods01:27

Microbes in the Production of Fermented Foods

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and molds are instrumental in fermenting plant-based foods to enhance preservation and ensure year-round availability. These microbial processes convert plant carbohydrates into organic acids and other metabolites that inhibit spoilage organisms and contribute to the sensory qualities of the final product.In sauerkraut production, cabbage goes through a microbial succession that starts with cocci such as Leuconostoc mesenteroides. These microbes begin fermentation by...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 7, 2026

A Method for Targeted 16S Sequencing of Human Milk Samples
09:09

A Method for Targeted 16S Sequencing of Human Milk Samples

Published on: March 23, 2018

Microorganisms in human milk: lights and shadows.

Elisa Civardi1, Francesca Garofoli, Chryssoula Tzialla

  • 1Neonatal Unit and Neonatal Intensive Care Unit, Maternal-Infant Department, Fondazione IRCCS Policlinico San Matteo , Pavia , Italy .

The Journal of Maternal-Fetal & Neonatal Medicine : the Official Journal of the European Association of Perinatal Medicine, the Federation of Asia and Oceania Perinatal Societies, the International Society of Perinatal Obstetricians
|September 25, 2013
PubMed
Summary

Human milk contains bacteria that can benefit the infant gut, acting as a protective factor. However, it can also transmit pathogens, posing a rare risk to newborns.

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Area of Science:

  • Microbiology
  • Immunology
  • Neonatal Health

Background:

  • Human milk was traditionally considered sterile.
  • Emerging research reveals a complex mammary microbiome in human milk.
  • This microbiome may influence infant health and development.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To explore the dual role of the human milk microbiome.
  • To investigate its potential benefits and risks for newborns.

Main Methods:

  • Review of recent scientific literature.
  • Analysis of studies on human milk bacteria.
  • Assessment of microbial impact on infant health.

Main Results:

  • Human milk harbors commensal and probiotic bacteria crucial for the infant gut.
  • The mammary microbiome possesses anti-infective, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, and metabolic functions.
  • Maternal infections, milk expression contamination, or vaccination can introduce pathogens into breast milk.

Conclusions:

  • The non-sterility of human milk is generally a protective factor for newborns.
  • In specific circumstances, it can rarely act as a risk factor, highlighting the importance of maternal health and safe milk handling.