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Subatomic Particles

Subatomic Particles

Dalton was only partially correct about the particles that make up matter. All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of three smaller subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. These three particles account for the mass and the charge of an atom.

Atomic Structure

Atomic Structure

The Greek philosopher Democritus proposed that everything on Earth is made up of tiny particles called atomos, Greek for "indivisible," from which the modern term "atom" is derived. In the 19th century, John Dalton proposed the atomic theory that is still largely correct today. He put forth five postulates to explain how atoms made up the world around us. (1) All matter is composed of infinitely small particles or atoms. (2) All atoms of a given element are identical to one another and (3) are...

Atomic Structure

Atomic Structure

Proton (¹H) NMR: Chemical Shift

Proton (¹H) NMR: Chemical Shift

Organic molecules primarily contain carbon and hydrogen atoms. While all the hydrogen isotopes are NMR-active, protium or hydrogen-1 is the most abundant. It has a significant energy separation between its nuclear spin states due to its large gyromagnetic ratio. As per Boltzmann's distribution, an increase in the energy separation implies a greater excess population of nuclei available for excitation, resulting in a strong NMR absorption signal.
Absorption signals of all the protium nuclei in a...

Electron Behavior

Electron Behavior

Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles attracted to and orbit around the positively-charged nucleus of an atom. They reside in spaces associated with energy levels called shells and are further organized into subshells and orbitals within each shell.
Electrons Orbit the Nucleus
Electrons are found in specific locations outside of the nucleus. The shell in which an electron resides indicates the general energy level of the electron: those closer to the nucleus have less energy,...

Electron Behavior

Electron Behavior

Overview
Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles that are attracted to an orbit around the positively-charged nucleus of an atom. They reside in locations that are associated with energy levels called shells and are further organized into sub-shells and orbitals within each shell.
Electrons Orbit the Nucleus
Electrons are found in specific locations outside of the nucleus. The shell in which an electron resides indicates the general energy level of the electron: those closer to the...

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Updated: May 7, 2026

Proton Therapy Delivery and Its Clinical Application in Select Solid Tumor Malignancies

Proton Therapy Delivery and Its Clinical Application in Select Solid Tumor Malignancies

Published on: February 6, 2019

Proton: the particle.

¹Department of Radiation Oncology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts.

International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology, Physics

|October 1, 2013

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Protons are fundamental particles created shortly after the Big Bang, making up 87% of baryonic matter. Their extensive lifespan and role in science, medicine, and industry highlight their universal importance.

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Area of Science:

Particle Physics
Cosmology
Nuclear Physics

Background:

Protons, discovered in 1919, are fundamental baryonic subatomic particles.
They constitute approximately 87% of the universe's baryonic mass and are present in every atom.
Their creation dates back to the early universe, within the first second after the Big Bang.

Observation:

Protons are composed of smaller particles, primarily quarks and gluons, a discovery made in 1968.
Their experimentally determined lifespan is exceptionally long, exceeding 10^34 years.
Protons have served as crucial experimental tools in discovering other particles, including various quarks and bosons.

Findings:

Protons are the dominant baryonic particle in the universe, numbering approximately 10^80.
The universe's elemental abundance is largely hydrogen (≈74%) and helium (≈24%), both proton-rich.
Protons are integral to virtually all matter interactions in the visible universe.

Implications:

Protons are vital in scientific research, enabling particle discoveries.
Their applications span various industries and are critical in medical fields like radiation oncology and MRI.
Understanding protons is key to comprehending the universe's composition, evolution, and fundamental interactions.