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Related Concept Videos

Birth Control Methods01:22

Birth Control Methods

Vasectomy is a surgical form of male sterilization that involves severing and sealing the vasa deferentia, preventing sperm from mixing with semen during ejaculation. Because a vasectomy does not impact the testes' ability to produce testosterone, hormone levels, libido, and sexual function generally remain unchanged. While vasectomy is highly effective in preventing pregnancy, with a success rate near 99.85%, rare cases of recanalization (spontaneous reconnection) can occur. Although vasectomy...
Intrauterine Drug Delivery Systems01:21

Intrauterine Drug Delivery Systems

Controlled-release systems for intravaginal and intrauterine drug delivery have been developed primarily for the administration of contraceptive steroid hormones. These delivery routes circumvent first-pass hepatic metabolism, thereby enhancing bioavailability and allowing for reduced systemic dosages compared to oral administration. Such approaches contribute to improved therapeutic efficacy and patient compliance, particularly in long-term contraceptive regimens.Intravaginal Drug Delivery...
Fertilization01:38

Fertilization

During fertilization, an egg and sperm cell fuse to create a new diploid structure. In humans, the process occurs once the egg has been released from the ovary, and travels into the fallopian tubes. The process requires several key steps: 1) sperm present in the genital tract must locate the egg; 2) once there, sperm need to release enzymes to help them burrow through the protective zona pellucida of the egg; and 3) the membranes of a single sperm cell and egg must fuse, with the sperm...
Meiosis II01:57

Meiosis II

Meiosis II is the second and final stage of meiosis. It relies on the haploid cells produced during meiosis I, each of which contain only 23 chromosomes—one from each homologous initial pair. Importantly, each chromosome in these cells is composed of two joined copies, and when these cells enter meiosis II, the goal is to separate such sister chromatids using the same microtubule-based network employed in other division processes. The result of meiosis II is two haploid cells, each containing...
Spermatogenesis01:41

Spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis is the process by which haploid sperm cells are produced in the male testes. It starts with stem cells located close to the outer rim of seminiferous tubules. These spermatogonial stem cells divide asymmetrically to give rise to additional stem cells (meaning that these structures “self-renew”), as well as sperm progenitors, called spermatocytes. Importantly, this method of asymmetric mitotic division maintains a population of spermatogonial stem cells in the male reproductive...
Infertility in Males01:23

Infertility in Males

Male infertility affects millions of couples worldwide, arising from various factors that impact different stages of the reproductive process. An endocrine imbalance resulting from conditions like hypogonadism, Klinefelter syndrome, or pituitary disorders can disrupt hormone levels and reduce sperm production. Testicular defects, such as tumors, cryptorchidism, atrophic testes, abnormal sperm morphology, and low sperm count or motility, may arise due to genetic factors, structural...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 7, 2026

Collection of Post-mating Semen from the Female Reproductive Tract and Measurement of Semen Liquefaction in Mice
12:06

Collection of Post-mating Semen from the Female Reproductive Tract and Measurement of Semen Liquefaction in Mice

Published on: November 18, 2017

Spermicide used alone for contraception.

David A Grimes1, Laureen M Lopez, Elizabeth G Raymond

  • 1Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of North Carolina, School of Medicine, CB#7570, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA, 27599-7570.

The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews
|October 3, 2013
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Spermicides, like nonoxynol-9 gels, show varied contraceptive efficacy. Lower doses may be less effective, and user factors significantly influence pregnancy risk.

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Measuring Intracellular Ca2+ Changes in Human Sperm using Four Techniques: Conventional Fluorometry, Stopped Flow Fluorometry, Flow Cytometry and Single Cell Imaging
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Published on: May 24, 2013

Area of Science:

  • Contraception research
  • Vaginal health products
  • Reproductive health

Background:

  • Spermicides have a long history of contraceptive use.
  • Recent research focuses on comparative efficacy and acceptability of spermicidal formulations.
  • Common active ingredients include nonoxynol-9, dispersed via gels, foams, or suppositories.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review all randomized controlled trials (RCTs) of spermicides used as standalone contraceptives.
  • To analyze the efficacy and pregnancy rates associated with different spermicidal products.

Main Methods:

  • Comprehensive search of multiple databases (CENTRAL, MEDLINE, POPLINE, LILACS, EMBASE, ClinicalTrials.gov, ICTRP) for RCTs.
  • Inclusion criteria: commercial spermicidal products used alone for contraception with sufficient pregnancy rate data.
  • Independent data extraction by two authors; descriptive presentation of results due to high loss to follow-up.

Main Results:

  • Fourteen trials were identified for the initial review; no new trials were found subsequently.
  • The largest trial indicated a lower contraceptive efficacy for nonoxynol-9 gel 52.5 mg compared to 100 mg and 150 mg doses.
  • Pregnancy probabilities at six months varied: 22% (52.5 mg), 16% (100 mg), and 14% (150 mg); different vehicles with 100 mg nonoxynol-9 showed similar efficacy.
  • High discontinuation rates (39%) limited interpretation; other trials showed few significant efficacy differences.

Conclusions:

  • Pregnancy probability with spermicides varies considerably across studies.
  • Nonoxynol-9 52.5 mg gel demonstrated inferior efficacy in the largest trial.
  • User characteristics and behavior appear more critical than product specifics in determining pregnancy risk.
  • Gels were preferred over films or suppositories in one trial.
  • Spermicide trial recruitment and retention pose significant challenges to validity.