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Brain Imaging

Brain Imaging

Brain imaging technologies provide critical insights into both the structure and function of the human brain, enabling medical professionals and researchers to diagnose, study, and treat neurological disorders or psychiatric disorders more effectively.
These technologies include computerized axial tomography (CAT or CT scans), positron-emission tomography (PET scans), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and Transcranial Magnetic...

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Updated: May 7, 2026

Electrode Positioning and Montage in Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation

Electrode Positioning and Montage in Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation

Published on: May 23, 2011

Deep brain stimulation for pain.

Erlick A C Pereira¹, Alexander L Green, Tipu Z Aziz

¹Oxford Functional Neurosurgery and Experimental Neurology Group, Department of Neurological Surgery and Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, Oxford University, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK.

Handbook of Clinical Neurology

|October 12, 2013

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) offers a viable treatment for refractory chronic pain in select patients. Current techniques and neuroimaging enhance patient selection and efficacy for conditions like amputation pain and cephalalgias.

Keywords:

McGill pain questionnaire amputation anterior cingulate cortex brachial plexus injury deep brain stimulation face pain periventricular gray quality of life thalamus visual analog score

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Area of Science:

Neurosurgery
Neurology
Pain Management

Background:

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is established for movement disorders.
Limited recent data exists for DBS in chronic pain using current technology.

Purpose of the Study:

To review the history, science, and clinical experience of DBS for chronic pain.
To present findings from 100 patients treated over 12 years using modern neuroimaging and stimulator technology.

Main Methods:

Review of DBS for chronic pain targeting ventral posterior thalamus, periventricular/periaqueductal gray, and rostral anterior cingulate cortex (Cg24).
Analysis of patient selection, surgical techniques, and clinical outcomes.
Incorporation of neuroimaging, neurophysiological insights, and autonomic assessments.

Main Results:

DBS is successful in selected chronic pain patients, including those with post-amputation pain, brachial plexus injury, stroke, and cephalalgias.
Specific conditions like anesthesia dolorosa, multiple sclerosis pain, and spine injury pain show positive outcomes.
Awake surgery with somatotopic coverage is crucial; cingulate DBS is considered for widespread pain or after other targets fail.

Conclusions:

Experienced centers continue to achieve success with DBS for chronic pain in carefully selected patients.
Advances in neuroimaging, neurophysiology, and autonomic assessment may improve patient selection and treatment efficacy.
Findings support further investigation through larger clinical trials to validate DBS for chronic pain management.