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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 6, 2026

Dissection and Flat-mounting of the Threespine Stickleback Branchial Skeleton

Dissection and Flat-mounting of the Threespine Stickleback Branchial Skeleton

Published on: May 7, 2016

Developmental bias in the evolution of phalanges.

Kathryn D Kavanagh¹, Oren Shoval, Benjamin B Winslow

¹Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, North Dartmouth, MA 02747.

Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America

|October 24, 2013

Summary

Developmental constraints deeply shape skeletal evolution. This study reveals a conserved module controlling phalange (finger bone) proportions across diverse species, with variations limited even by convergent evolution.

Keywords:

developmental constraint developmental module phalanx

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Area of Science:

Evolutionary developmental biology
Comparative anatomy
Phylogenetics

Background:

Evolutionary theory posits developmental rules constrain variation, but empirical evidence is scarce.
Understanding the genetic and developmental basis of morphological evolution is key.
Phalangeal morphology in tetrapods offers a model for studying conserved developmental patterns.

Purpose of the Study:

To provide empirical evidence for deeply conserved developmental constraints on skeletal morphology.
To investigate the developmental regulation and evolutionary conservation of phalange proportions.
To explore the relationship between phalangeal variation and evolutionary pressures.

Main Methods:

Comparative measurements of phalange sizes in two bird species.
Experimental manipulation of digit development in early stages.
Cross-species analysis of phalangeal proportions across six major vertebrate lineages.

Main Results:

Successive phalanges within a digit exhibit predictable relative proportions, conserved across species and evolutionary time.
Phalangeal size is regulated as a system during early development, independent of metatarsals.
Convergent evolution of elongated distal phalanges occurs in specific functional contexts (e.g., grasping).

Conclusions:

A deeply conserved skeletal module constrains phalangeal morphology, limiting evolutionary variation.
Developmental regulation of phalange proportions is established early and conserved across tetrapods.
While generally constrained, novel phalangeal forms can evolve convergently under specific selective pressures.