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The Auditory Ossicles

The Auditory Ossicles

The auditory ossicles of the middle ear transmit sounds from the air as vibrations to the fluid-filled cochlea. The auditory ossicles consist of two malleus (hammer) bones, two incus (anvil) bones, and two stapes (stirrups), one on each side. These bones develop during the fetal stage and are the ones to ossify first. They are fully mature at birth and do not grow afterward.
The aptly named stapes look very much like a stirrup. The three ossicles are unique to mammals, and each plays a role in...

Anatomy of the Ear

Anatomy of the Ear

Auditory sensation, commonly called hearing, involves the transformation of sonic waves into neural impulses facilitated by the structures of the auditory organ. The prominent, flesh-like structure on the side of the head, called the auricle, directs sound waves towards the auditory canal. The auricle is often mislabeled as the pinna, a term more aligned with mobile structures like a feline's external ear. The auditory canal penetrates the cranium via the external auditory meatus of the...

The Cochlea

The Cochlea

The cochlea is a coiled structure in the inner ear that contains hair cells—the sensory receptors of the auditory system. Sound waves are transmitted to the cochlea by small bones attached to the eardrum called the ossicles, which vibrate the oval window that leads to the inner ear. This causes fluid in the chambers of the cochlea to move, vibrating the basilar membrane.

Auditory Pathway

Auditory Pathway

Auditory pathways constitute the complex neural circuits responsible for transmitting and interpreting auditory information from the peripheral auditory system to the brain. Sound waves are initially captured by the outer ear, funneled through the ear canal, and reach the tympanic membrane (eardrum). These vibrations are transmitted via the middle ear's ossicles to the inner ear's cochlea.
When viewed cross-sectionally, the cochlea reveals the scala vestibuli and scala tympani flanking...

Hearing

Hearing

When we hear a sound, our nervous system is detecting sound waves—pressure waves of mechanical energy traveling through a medium. The frequency of the wave is perceived as pitch, while the amplitude is perceived as loudness.

Auditory Perception

Auditory Perception

The auditory system is essential for sound perception, utilizing various critical structures. When sound waves enter the outer ear, they travel through the ear canal and cause the eardrum to vibrate. These vibrations are then transmitted to the middle ear, where three tiny bones – the malleus, incus, and stapes – amplify the sound. This amplification is crucial, as it ensures that the sound vibrations are strong enough to be conveyed to the inner ear. These vibrations then reach the...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 6, 2026

The Microscopic Transcanal Approach in Stapes Surgery Revisited

The Microscopic Transcanal Approach in Stapes Surgery Revisited

Published on: February 16, 2022

The discovery of stapes.

F Dispenza¹, F Cappello, G Kulamarva

¹U.O.C. Otorinolaringoiatria, Azienda Sanitaria Provinciale 1 Agrigento, Ospedale "San Giovanni di Dio", Agrigento, Italy;

Acta Otorhinolaryngologica Italica : Organo Ufficiale Della Societa Italiana Di Otorinolaringologia E Chirurgia Cervico-Facciale

|November 15, 2013

Summary

Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia, a 16th-century physician, significantly advanced otorhinolaryngology. His key contributions include the discovery of the stapes bone and insights into its auditory function.

Keywords:

Ear Hearing History Ingrassia Otology Stapes

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Area of Science:

Anatomy
History of Medicine
Otorhinolaryngology

Background:

Giovanni Filippo Ingrassia was a prominent 16th-century Italian physician.
He critically reviewed and expanded upon the anatomical reports of Galen.

Discussion:

Ingrassia's anatomical studies focused significantly on the skull.
He made crucial contributions to the field of otorhinolaryngology, detailing various cranial structures.

Key Insights:

Ingrassia described the frontal sinus, pterygopalatine fossa, and skull foramina.
He isolated the inferior nasal concha from the maxillary bone.
He was the first to attribute a sensory function to the middle ear ossicles, termed the 'fifth particular function', and described the stapes, the third bone in the ossicular chain.

Outlook:

Ingrassia's work on the stapes and its role in hearing warrants reconsideration.
His contributions merit recognition alongside other historical figures in otology, such as Eustachio and Valsalva.