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Memory is the retention of information or experiences over time, facilitated through three main processes: encoding, storage, and retrieval. Encoding is the process of inputting information into the memory system. For instance, when listening to a lecture, watching a play, reading a book, or having a conversation, the brain is actively encoding information. This initial stage involves transforming sensory input into a form that can be processed and stored by the brain. Various factors, such as...
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A schema is a mental framework that helps individuals organize and interpret information. Schemata, formed from previous experiences, influence how we process new information: how we encode it, the inferences we make, and how we retrieve it. For instance, a schema for what a typical classroom looks like might include desks, a teacher's desk, a whiteboard, and students in such an environment. This expectation helps us quickly understand and navigate new classrooms without needing to analyze...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 6, 2026

The Spatial Memory Game: Testing the Relationship Between Spatial Language, Object Knowledge, and Spatial Cognition
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Tracking variable environments: There is more than one kind of memory.

F D Provenza1

  • 1Department of Rangeland Resources, Utah State University, 84322-5230, Logan, Utah.

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Summary

Herbivores use three memory types—collective, maternal, and individual—to adapt foraging behaviors to environmental changes. These memories interact, influencing food choices and survival strategies for individual animals and species.

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Area of Science:

  • Animal Behavior
  • Ecology
  • Evolutionary Biology

Background:

  • Herbivores rely on environmental memory for survival and foraging.
  • Understanding memory systems is crucial for predicting herbivore responses to ecological shifts.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To identify and describe the distinct memory systems herbivores utilize.
  • To explore the interplay between different memory types in shaping foraging decisions.

Main Methods:

  • Review of existing literature on herbivore memory and foraging.
  • Analysis of sensory inputs (auditory, visual, pain, taste) and postingestive feedback.
  • Examination of genetic, transgenerational, and individual learning mechanisms.

Main Results:

  • Identified three memory types: collective (genetic defense systems), maternal (transgenerational knowledge transfer), and individual (experiential learning).
  • Demonstrated how skin and gut defense systems, influenced by predation and plant chemistry, represent collective memory.
  • Highlighted the role of mothers in social mammals for efficient and safe learning about food and environments.
  • Showcased postingestive feedback as key to individual memory formation and food selection adjustment.

Conclusions:

  • The interaction of collective, maternal, and individual memory shapes herbivore foraging dynamics.
  • Foraging behaviors are influenced by unique genetic and behavioral histories, leading to variability.
  • Herbivore foraging is not always stable, optimal, or predictable due to these complex memory interactions.