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The pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic (PK-PD) relationship describes the intricate link between drug exposure, efficacy, and toxicity, forming the foundation for optimal dosing regimens. This relationship uses mathematical modeling to characterize drug concentration-effect dynamics, ensuring precise therapeutic outcomes.Exposure represents the pharmacokinetic aspect of the PK-PD relationship, denoting the drug amount that elicits a biological response. It is typically quantified by administered...
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Updated: May 5, 2026

Ole Isacson: Development of New Therapies for Parkinson's Disease
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MD-PhD training: looking back and looking forward.

Ann C Bonham1

  • 1Dr. Bonham is chief scientific officer, Association of American Medical Colleges, Washington, DC.

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Summary
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Medical doctor-PhD (MD-PhD) programs excel at training physician-scientists. Future training should incorporate new technologies and diverse research areas to meet evolving healthcare needs.

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Area of Science:

  • Medical Education
  • Physician-Scientist Training

Background:

  • MD-PhD programs offer integrated training for physician-scientists.
  • Physician-scientists make significant contributions to medical science.
  • Existing research affirms the excellence of US MD-PhD programs, particularly those funded by the NIH Medical Scientist Training Program (MSTP).

Purpose of the Study:

  • To affirm the high educational outcomes of MD-PhD training programs.
  • To emphasize the need for longitudinal data to verify the value of physician-scientists.
  • To propose improvements for future physician-scientist training.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of educational outcomes from US MD-granting medical schools.
  • Review of data from MSTP- and non-MSTP-funded MD-PhD programs.
  • Commentary on the future research environment and training needs.

Main Results:

  • MD-PhD programs demonstrate high levels of educational excellence.
  • MSTP-funded programs show particular excellence.
  • Longitudinal data is crucial for assessing the value of physician-scientists.

Conclusions:

  • MD-PhD programs effectively train physician-scientists.
  • Future physician-scientist training must adapt to new technologies and integrated healthcare systems.
  • Expanded training in areas like health policy and informatics is essential.