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Molecular Models

Molecular Models

Physical models representing molecular architectures of chemical compounds play essential roles in understanding chemistry. The use of molecular models makes it easier to visualize the structures and shapes of atoms and molecules.

Polyprotic Acids

Polyprotic Acids

Acids are classified by the number of protons per molecule that they can give up in a reaction. Acids such as HCl, HNO3, and HCN that contain one ionizable hydrogen atom in each molecule are called monoprotic acids. Their reactions with water are:

Weak Acid Solutions

Weak Acid Solutions

Few compounds act as strong acids. A far greater number of compounds behave as weak acids and only partially react with water, leaving a large majority of dissolved molecules in their original form and generating a relatively small amount of hydronium ions. Weak acids are commonly encountered in nature, being the substances partly responsible for the tangy taste of citrus fruits, the stinging sensation of insect bites, and the unpleasant smells associated with body odor. A familiar example of a...

Acid Strength and Molecular Structure

Acid Strength and Molecular Structure

Binary Acids and Bases
In the absence of any leveling effect, the acid strength of binary compounds of hydrogen with nonmetals (A) increases as the H-A bond strength decreases down a group in the periodic table. For group 17, the order of increasing acidity is HF < HCl < HBr < HI. Likewise, for group 16, the order of increasing acid strength is H2O < H2S < H2Se < H2Te. Across a row in the periodic table, the acid strength of binary hydrogen compounds increases with...

Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Nomenclature

Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Nomenclature

Molecular compounds or covalent compounds result when atoms share electrons to form covalent bonds. Since there is no electron transfer, molecular compounds do not contain ions; instead, they consist of discrete, neutral molecules.

Mixtures of Acids

Mixtures of Acids

The pH of a solution containing an acid can be determined using its acid dissociation constant and its initial concentration. If a solution contains two different acids, then its pH can be determined using one of several methods depending upon the relative strength of the acids and their dissociation constants.
A Mixture of a Strong Acid and a Weak Acid
In a mixture of a strong acid and a weak acid, the strong acid dissociates completely and becomes a source of almost all the hydronium ions...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 5, 2026

Calcium Carbonate Formation in the Presence of Biopolymeric Additives

Calcium Carbonate Formation in the Presence of Biopolymeric Additives

Published on: May 14, 2019

Carbonic acid: molecule, crystal and aqueous solution.

Sandeep K Reddy¹, Sundaram Balasubramanian

¹Chemistry and Physics of Materials Unit, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre for Advanced Scientific Research, Jakkur, Bangalore 560 064, India. bala@jncasr.ac.in.

Chemical Communications (Cambridge, England)

|November 28, 2013

Summary

Carbonic acid (CA) properties are challenging to study due to its instability. Research using computational modeling and spectroscopy reveals insights into its acidity, gas-phase composition, and crystalline structures, particularly β-carbonic acid.

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Expression, Purification, Crystallization, and Enzyme Assays of Fumarylacetoacetate Hydrolase Domain-Containing Proteins

Expression, Purification, Crystallization, and Enzyme Assays of Fumarylacetoacetate Hydrolase Domain-Containing Proteins

Published on: June 20, 2019

Area of Science:

Chemistry
Geochemistry
Materials Science

Background:

Carbonic acid (CA) is vital for CO2 and mineral equilibria but poorly understood.
Its transient nature and reactivity hinder experimental investigation.
Recent advancements focus on its detection, synthesis, and properties in various phases.

Purpose of the Study:

To summarize recent research on carbonic acid properties.
To review experimental and computational findings on CA's molecular, crystalline, and solution behavior.
To highlight the role of computational modeling in overcoming experimental challenges.

Main Methods:

Ultrafast time-resolved spectroscopy.
Molecular dynamics and Kohn-Sham density functional theory calculations.
Synthesis and characterization of crystalline carbonic acid polymorphs (thin films).
Multi-tiered computational modeling of crystal structures and vibrational spectra.

Main Results:

The pKa of carbonic acid is determined to be approximately 3.5, similar to formic acid.
Gas-phase composition, including conformers and oligomers, has been examined.
Experimental vibrational spectra of β-carbonic acid are better matched by a chain-like hydrogen-bonded crystal model than a 2D sheet-like model.
The chain-like crystal is predicted stable below 359 K at 1 atm under dry conditions.

Conclusions:

Computational modeling is crucial for understanding carbonic acid due to experimental difficulties.
A chain-like hydrogen-bonding motif accurately represents β-carbonic acid crystals.
Further research is needed to fully elucidate carbonic acid's complex properties and roles.