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The de Broglie Wavelength02:32

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In the macroscopic world, objects that are large enough to be seen by the naked eye follow the rules of classical physics. A billiard ball moving on a table will behave like a particle; it will continue traveling in a straight line unless it collides with another ball, or it is acted on by some other force, such as friction. The ball has a well-defined position and velocity or well-defined momentum, p = mv, which is defined by mass m and velocity v at any given moment. This is the typical...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 5, 2026

A Microfluidic System with Surface Patterning for Investigating Cavitation Bubble(s)&#8211;Cell Interaction and the Resultant Bioeffects at the Single-cell Level
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Bubble and pattern formation in liquid induced by an electron beam.

Joseph M Grogan1, Nicholas M Schneider, Frances M Ross

  • 1Department of Mechanical Engineering and Applied Mechanics, the University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States.

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|December 5, 2013
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Summary

Electron beam interactions with water in liquid cell electron microscopy cause radiolysis, leading to bubble formation and cation precipitation. This effect enables direct nanoscale writing of structures without masks.

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Revealing Dynamic Processes of Materials in Liquids Using Liquid Cell Transmission Electron Microscopy
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Area of Science:

  • Materials Science
  • Chemistry
  • Physics

Background:

  • Liquid cell electron microscopy (LCEM) enables in situ nanoscale studies in liquids.
  • Understanding electron beam interactions with liquids is crucial for LCEM applications.
  • Beam effects can be detrimental or exploited for novel applications.

Purpose of the Study:

  • Quantify high-energy electron interactions with water.
  • Investigate the role of radiolysis and heating.
  • Model radiolysis species and predict bubble formation.
  • Explore beam-induced precipitation and direct writing.

Main Methods:

  • In situ liquid cell electron microscopy.
  • Quantitative analysis of electron beam-water interactions.
  • Development of a reaction-diffusion model.
  • Imaging of bubble dynamics and beam-induced structures.

Main Results:

  • Radiolysis is significant; heating is negligible in water under typical LCEM conditions.
  • Radiolysis products (H2, hydrated electrons) reach equilibrium in seconds.
  • High dose-rates induce bubble nucleation, growth, and migration.
  • Beam-induced precipitation of cations and direct writing of nanoscale patterns are demonstrated.

Conclusions:

  • Electron beam radiolysis is a key factor in LCEM of water.
  • Bubble formation is predictable based on dose-rate and radiolysis.
  • The electron beam can be harnessed for maskless nanoscale fabrication.