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Acid Halides to Ketones: Gilman Reagent01:14

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Lithium dialkyl cuprate, also known as Gilman reagents, selectively reduces acid halides to ketones. The acid chloride is treated with Gilman reagent at −78 °C in the presence of ether solution to produce a ketone in good yield.
As shown below, the mechanism proceeds in two steps. First, one of the alkyl groups of the reagent acts as a nucleophile and attacks the acyl carbon of the acid chloride to form a tetrahedral intermediate. This is followed by the reformation of the...
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The reactions of acid anhydrides are analogous to the reactions of acid chlorides and proceed via a nucleophilic acyl substitution. They only differ in the identity of the leaving group. During an acid chloride reaction, the leaving group is a chloride ion, and the by-product is hydrochloric acid. However, in an acid anhydride reaction, the leaving group is a carboxylate ion, and the by-product is a carboxylic acid.
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G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) signaling plays a crucial role in cell functioning. GPCR desensitization is an equally essential process. It allows cells to respond to changing environments and regain sensitivity to new stimuli while preventing unnecessary stimulation when no longer needed. Prolonged exposure to stimuli leads to GPCR desensitization. It involves blocking the receptors from binding and activating additional G proteins. This inhibits activation of downstream effectors, thereby...
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Repressed Memory01:16

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Repressed memories are a psychological phenomenon where memories of traumatic events are unconsciously blocked from a person's awareness. This process occurs as a defense mechanism, protecting the mind from the emotional impact of distressing or painful experiences. For example, a person who has experienced childhood trauma may grow up with no conscious recollection of the event. In such cases, the memories are thought to be buried deep within the subconscious, inaccessible to the conscious...
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Punishment01:27

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Negative reinforcement and punishment are often confused but serve distinct functions in behavior modification. Reinforcement, whether positive or negative, increases the likelihood of a desired behavior, while punishment decreases it.
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Histamine H2 receptors, which are intricately located on the basolateral membrane of parietal cells, play a crucial role in modulating gastric acid secretion. When released from enterochromaffin-like cells, histamine engages H2 receptors, initiating the cyclic AMP (cAMP) pathway. In this pathway, adenylyl cyclase converts ATP into cAMP, elevating intracellular cAMP levels. The activation of protein kinase A follows, stimulating the proton pump. This stimulation prompts the secretion of hydrogen...
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Updated: May 4, 2026

A G-quadruplex DNA-affinity Approach for Purification of Enzymatically Active G4 Resolvase1
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GHB acid: A rage or reprive.

Prakhar Kapoor1, Revati Deshmukh2, Ipsita Kukreja2

  • 1Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Pathology, Sri Aurobindo College of Dentistry and PG Institute, Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India.

Journal of Advanced Pharmaceutical Technology & Research
|December 19, 2013
PubMed
Summary

Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is a CNS depressant with sedative and euphoric effects, leading to abuse by bodybuilders, predators, and club-goers. Its availability and addictive potential pose significant health and safety risks.

Keywords:
Abuseecstasyeuphoriagamma-butyrolactonegamma-hydroxybutyric acidhallucinationsodontologists

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Area of Science:

  • Neuroscience
  • Pharmacology
  • Toxicology

Background:

  • Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) is a GABA analog with a history of clinical use and subsequent withdrawal due to severe side effects.
  • GHB is implicated in drug-facilitated sexual assault and is abused by various user groups for its psychoactive properties.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review the multifaceted effects and risks associated with Gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) use.
  • To highlight the diverse patterns of GHB abuse and its potential health consequences.

Main Methods:

  • Literature review of GHB's pharmacological effects, clinical history, and patterns of abuse.
  • Analysis of reported adverse effects, including CNS depression, addiction, and rare cases of self-mutilation.

Main Results:

  • GHB acts as a CNS depressant, causing effects ranging from relaxation to coma.
  • Abuse is prevalent among bodybuilders, sexual predators, and club-goers, driven by its euphoric and sedative properties.
  • Despite regulation, GHB remains accessible, posing risks of addiction and severe health complications, including rare oral self-mutilations.

Conclusions:

  • GHB abuse presents significant public health challenges due to its psychoactive effects, addictive potential, and widespread availability.
  • Healthcare professionals, particularly odontologists, should be aware of GHB-associated risks, including self-mutilation, in patients presenting with unexplained oral lesions.