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Functions of Thyroid Hormones

Functions of Thyroid Hormones

The thyroid hormone (TH) plays a pivotal role in the intricate orchestration of physiological processes, exerting profound effects on development, metabolism, and homeostasis throughout different life stages.
TH is indispensable for the normal development and maturation of the skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems during fetal and childhood growth. It facilitates bone mineral turnover and regulates protein synthesis in developing tissues, contributing significantly to overall growth and...

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Low blood levels of the thyroid hormones — triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) — signal the hypothalamus to release the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then reaches the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) into the bloodstream.
Upon reaching the thyroid gland, TSH stimulates the follicular cells' active uptake of iodide ions from the blood. The ions diffuse to the apical surface of the cells and are oxidized to iodine. The...

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH...

Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology

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Hypothyroidism is a disorder characterized by insufficient production of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy balance, and multiple organ systems.TypesHypothyroidism is classified based on the level of dysfunction. Primary hypothyroidism results from intrinsic thyroid gland dysfunction, causing reduced hormone production despite normal or increased stimulation. Secondary hypothyroidism arises from inadequate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion by the pituitary. Tertiary...

Graves Disease II: Pathophysiology

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Graves’ disease is an autoimmune disorder characterized by the production of thyroid-stimulating immunoglobulins (TSI) that activate TSH receptors, leading to excessive synthesis and release of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4) and resulting in hyperthyroidism.Among all causes of hyperthyroidism, Graves’ disease is the most common and can happen at any age, though it is more frequent in women. It produces a hypermetabolic state with features such as weight loss, tachycardia, tremor,...

Hyperthyroidism I: Introduction

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Hyperthyroidism is a type of thyrotoxicosis characterized by the thyroid gland's overproduction of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). This hormone excess increases the basal metabolic rate and enhances sensitivity to catecholamines.DiagnosisDiagnosis is based on clinical features and biochemical testing. It typically shows suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels below 0.4 mIU/L, with elevated free T3 and/or T4. Additional tests, including thyroid...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 3, 2026

An Ex vivo Culture System to Study Thyroid Development

An Ex vivo Culture System to Study Thyroid Development

Published on: June 6, 2014

Thyroid physiology in pregnancy.

Mariacarla Moleti¹, Francesco Trimarchi¹, Francesco Vermiglio¹

¹Dipartimento di Medicina Clinica e Sperimentale, University of Messina, Messina, Italy.

Endocrine Practice : Official Journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists

|January 23, 2014

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Maternal thyroid function undergoes significant physiological changes during pregnancy, influenced by hormones like human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) and altered iodine metabolism. These shifts necessitate gestation-specific reference ranges for accurate thyroid hormone interpretation.

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Area of Science:

Endocrinology
Reproductive Physiology
Maternal-Fetal Medicine

Background:

Pregnancy involves dynamic physiological adaptations in maternal thyroid economy.
Understanding these changes is crucial for managing thyroid health during gestation.

Purpose of the Study:

To review the key physiological events influencing maternal thyroid function throughout pregnancy.
To highlight the impact of these changes on thyroid hormone levels and interpretation.

Main Methods:

Comprehensive review of scientific literature on maternal thyroid physiology during pregnancy.

Main Results:

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) transiently increases free thyroxine (FT4) and decreases thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) in the first trimester.
Thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG) increases, raising total T4 and triiodothyronine (T3) levels.
Placental deiodinases (D2 and D3) modify peripheral thyroid hormone metabolism.
Maternal iodide requirements increase by approximately 100%, necessitating a daily intake of 250 μg.

Conclusions:

Thyroid hormone and TSH reference intervals vary significantly during pregnancy.
Method- and gestation-specific reference ranges are recommended for accurate interpretation.
Inadequate iodine intake during pregnancy poses risks for both mother and fetus.