Effective electron displacements: a tool for time-dependent density functional theory computational spectroscopy

We extend our previous definition of the metric Δr for electronic excitations in the framework of the time-dependent density functional theory [C. A. Guido, P. Cortona, B. Mennucci, and C. Adamo, J. Chem. Theory Comput. 9, 3118 (2013)], by including a measure of the difference of electronic position variances in passing from occupied to virtual orbitals. This new definition, called Γ, permits applications in those situations where the Δr-index is not helpful: transitions in centrosymmetric systems and Rydberg excitations. The Γ-metric is then extended by using the Natural Transition Orbitals, thus providing an intuitive picture of how locally the electron density changes during the electronic transitions. Furthermore, the Γ values give insight about the functional performances in reproducing different type of transitions, and allow one to define a "confidence radius" for GGA and hybrid functionals.