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Related Concept Videos

T Cell Activation and Clonal Selection01:22

T Cell Activation and Clonal Selection

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T cells are integral to our adaptive immune system, recognizing and effectively responding to foreign antigens. T cell activation and clonal selection are pivotal in orchestrating this immune response. This article elucidates these mechanisms, detailing the roles of cluster of differentiation (CD) markers, major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules, costimulatory signals, and the process of clonal selection.
Naive T cells that have not yet encountered an antigen express two primary CD...
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Cytotoxic T cells are a vital component of the immune system. They have the remarkable ability to identify and target antigens on infected or abnormal cells. These antigens often originate from intracellular pathogens such as viruses or abnormal proteins cancer cells produce.
Immunological surveillance is the ability of immune cells to monitor and eliminate infected cells with intracellular pathogens, neoplastically transformed cells, and cells with non-self antigens. Cytotoxic T cells and NK...
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T Cell Types and Functions01:24

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When T cells with CD4 markers are activated, they give rise to two types of effector cells: helper T cells and regulatory T cells. Meanwhile, T cells with CD8 markers differentiate into effector cytotoxic T cells. The differentiation of CD4 T cells into helper T cell subsets, such as Th1, Th2, and Th17 cells, is dependent on the antigen type, antigen-presenting cell, and regulatory cytokines.
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Immunotherapy is a treatment that boosts or manipulates the immune system to fight diseases, including cancer. For instance, by stimulating an immune response through vaccinations against viruses that cause cancers, like hepatitis B virus and human papillomavirus, these diseases can be prevented. Nonetheless, some cancer cells can avoid the immune system due to their rapid mutation and division. The immune response to many cancers involves three phases: elimination, equilibrium, and escape.
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: May 1, 2026

Non-Viral Engineering of Primary Human T Cells via Homology-Mediated End-Joining Targeted Integration of Large DNA Templates
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Non-Viral Engineering of Primary Human T Cells via Homology-Mediated End-Joining Targeted Integration of Large DNA Templates

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Genetic modification of T cells.

Richard A Morgan1, Sunitha Kakarla

  • 1From Bluebird Bio, Cambridge, MA.R.A.M. and S.K. are employees of and own equity in Bluebird Bio.

Cancer Journal (Sudbury, Mass.)
|March 27, 2014
PubMed
Summary

Gene transfer technologies have evolved for T cell therapies. This review covers viral (gamma retroviral, lentiviral) and nonviral (transposons, mRNA electroporation) methods used in clinical trials for B-cell malignancies.

Area of Science:

  • Biotechnology
  • Molecular Biology
  • Immunotherapy

Background:

  • Gene transfer has evolved significantly since the 1970s.
  • Sophisticated viral and nonviral methods are now used in clinical practice.
  • Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cell therapy is a key area of gene therapy.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review four gene transfer methodologies used in human gene therapy clinical trials.
  • To focus on methods for transferring chimeric antigen receptors into T cells.
  • To examine applications in treating B-cell malignancies.

Main Methods:

  • Review of viral vector gene transfer technologies: gamma retroviral vectors and lentiviral vectors.
  • Review of nonviral gene transfer methods: transposons and mRNA electroporation.

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  • Analysis of gene transfer techniques applied in human clinical trials for CAR T cell therapy.

    • Main Results:

    • Viral vectors (gamma retroviral, lentiviral) are established methods for CAR T cell gene transfer.
    • Nonviral methods (transposons, mRNA electroporation) offer alternative approaches.
    • These four methods are central to current CAR T cell therapy clinical trials for B-cell malignancies.

    Conclusions:

    • Gene transfer technologies are critical for advancing CAR T cell therapies.
    • The choice of gene transfer method impacts CAR T cell therapy efficacy and safety.
    • Continued innovation in gene transfer is essential for treating B-cell malignancies.