Assessing the antifouling properties of cold-spray metal embedment using loading density gradients of metal particles

Particles of copper, bronze and zinc were embedded into a polymer using cold-spray technology to produce loading density gradients of metal particles. The gradients were used to identify the species with the highest tolerance to the release of copper and zinc ions. The gradients also established the minimum effective release rates (MERRs) of copper and zinc ions needed to prevent the recruitment of fouling under field conditions. Watersipora sp. and Simplaria pseudomilitaris had the highest tolerances to the release of metal ions. Copper and bronze gradient tubes were similar in their MERRs of copper ions against Watersipora sp. (0.058 g m(-2) h(-1) and 0.054 g m(-2) h(-1), respectively) and against S. pseudomilitaris (0.030 g m(-2) h(-1) and 0.025 g m(-2) h(-1), respectively). Zinc was not an effective antifoulant, with failure within two weeks. In conclusion, cold-spray gradients were effective in determining MERRs and these outcomes provide the basis for the development of cold-spray surfaces with pre-determined life-spans using controlled MERRs.