Related Experiment Video
Updated: May 1, 2026

Using the Threat Probability Task to Assess Anxiety and Fear During Uncertain and Certain Threat
Published on: September 12, 2014
Undermining optimistic denial reactions to domestic and campus emergency warning messages
Suzanne C Thompson1, Michele M Schlehofer
1Pomona College, USA.
Background:
Individuals who prepare for public emergencies can mitigate the effects of an incident, but denial of personal susceptibility may reduce the likelihood of preparation. Some denial may be due to a positive self-image that is at odds with being "at risk". The potential for an enhanced warning message that included a positive image of a protector to circumvent this denial was tested in two studies.
Methods:
Optimistic denial threat orientation was measured. Then participants received either a traditional or a positive protector warning message about terrorism (Study 1; nationally representative sample of US adults; N = 587) or campus emergency preparation (Study 2; US college students; N = 179).
Results:
As predicted, in the enhanced image condition optimistic denial was no longer related to stronger denial reactions and lower intentions to protect oneself. In addition, Study 2 tested explanatory mediators and found that negative perceptions of and low similarity to a protector partially explained the denial of those higher in optimistic denial and why their denial was dampened in the positive image condition.
Conclusions:
An enhanced message including a positive image of protector may be an effective way to encourage protection for those prone to optimistic denial.
Related Concept Videos
Unrealistic Optimism Bias
Coping Strategies: Emotion Focused
Psychological Responses to Stress
Stereotype Threat and Self-fulfilling Prophecies
Cognitive Dissonance
Avoidance Learning and Learned Helplessness
Avoidance learning occurs when an organism learns that a specific behavior can prevent an unpleasant outcome. For example, a student who receives a bad grade may start studying harder to avoid future poor grades. This behavior persists even when the negative outcome is no longer present. Avoidance learning is powerful because it maintains behavior in the absence of the...

