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Hormonal Regulation

Hormonal Regulation

Hormones regulate a significant portion of digestion through activation of the neuroendocrine system. The neuroendocrine system of digestion contains many different hormones all with multiple functions that are both, directly and indirectly, involved in digestion.

Hormonal Regulation

Hormonal Regulation

The renin-aldosterone system is an endocrine system which guides the renal absorption of water and electrolytes, thus managing blood pressure and osmoregulation. Activation of the system begins in the kidneys with a small cluster of cells adjacent to the afferent and efferent blood vessels of the renal corpuscle. As the nephrons are filtering blood, juxtaglomerular cells monitor blood pressure. If they detect a decrease in pressure, they release the hormone renin into the bloodstream.

Types of Hormones

Types of Hormones

Hormones can be classified into three main types based on their chemical structures: steroids, peptides, and amines. Their actions are mediated by the specific receptors they bind to on target cells.

Types of Hormones

Types of Hormones

Hormones are classified into four main groups: steroids, eicosanoids, amino acid-based derivatives, and peptide hormones.
Steroids and eicosanoids fall under the category of lipid-soluble hormones. Steroids are derived from cholesterol and feature four interconnected carbon rings with variable side chains. Notable examples include estradiol from ovaries and testosterone from testes, exemplifying the critical roles of these lipid-soluble hormones in reproductive physiology. Eicosanoids, derived...

Plant Hormones

Plant Hormones

Plant hormones—or phytohormones—are chemical molecules that modulate one or more physiological processes of a plant. In animals, hormones are often produced in specific glands and circulated via the circulatory system. However, plants lack hormone-producing glands.

Bile

Bile

Bile is a crucial bodily fluid, characterized by its yellow-green color and alkaline nature. Produced in the liver, it is transported through the common hepatic duct into either the cystic duct, leading to the gallbladder, or directly into the common bile duct. The flow of bile is regulated by the sphincter of Oddi located at the entrance of the duodenum. When this sphincter is closed, bile is redirected to the gallbladder for storage and concentration.
Bile is released when dietary fats enter...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Feb 9, 2026

Ileectomy-induced Bile Overaccumulation in Mouse Intestine

Ileectomy-induced Bile Overaccumulation in Mouse Intestine

Published on: August 21, 2017

Bile acids are nutrient signaling hormones.

Huiping Zhou¹, Phillip B Hylemon¹

¹Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Virginia Commonwealth University, Medical College of Virginia Campus, Richmond, VA 23298, United States; McGuire VA Medical Center, Richmond, VA 23249, United States.

|May 14, 2014

Summary

Bile salts are vital for nutrient processing and signaling. Disruptions in bile acid signaling due to inflammation may increase fatty liver disease risk and promote cancer growth.

Keywords:

12α-hydroxylase AKT ASBT BSEP Bile acids CA CCA CDCA CYP27A1 CYP7A1 CYP7B1 CYP8B1 DCA EGFR ERK1/2 FGF15/19 FXR G-6-Pase G-protein coupled receptor GCA GDCA GPCR Glucose metabolism HNF4a Insulin LCA LRH-1 LXR Liver M1-5 NAFLD NTCP P13K PEP carboxykinse PEPCK PKCζ PXR S1P S1PR2 SHP Sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 2 TCA apical sodium dependent transporter bile salt export protein (ABCB11)chenodeoxycholic acid cholangiocarcinoma cholesterol 7α-hydroxylase cholic acid deoxycholic acid epidermal growth factor receptor extracellular signal-regulated kinase farnesoid x receptor fibroblast growth factor 15/19 glucose-6-phosphatase glycocholic acid glycodeoxycholic acid hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 lithocholic acid liver X receptor liver-related homolog-1 muscarinic receptor 1-5 non-alcoholic fatty liver disease oxysterol 7α-hydroxylase phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase pregnane X receptor protein kinase B small heterodimer partner sodium taurocholate cotransporting polypeptide sphingosine 1-phosphate sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 2 sterol 27-hydroxylase taurocholate

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Last Updated: Feb 9, 2026

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Published on: January 4, 2016

Area of Science:

Biochemistry
Cellular Biology
Metabolic Diseases

Background:

Bile salts are essential for gastrointestinal nutrient digestion, transport, and metabolism.
They act as signaling hormones, activating nuclear receptors (FXR, PXR, Vitamin D) and G-protein coupled receptors (TGR5, S1PR2, muscarinic receptors).
Bile acids and insulin collaborate in hepatic nutrient metabolism, activating AKT and ERK1/2 signaling pathways.

Purpose of the Study:

To explore the intricate relationship between bile acid signaling, insulin signaling, and metabolic regulation.
To investigate the potential impact of chronic inflammation and insulin resistance on bile acid signaling and lipid metabolism.
To examine the role of conjugated bile acids in promoting cholangiocarcinoma growth.

Main Methods:

Review of existing literature on bile acid and insulin signaling pathways.
Analysis of the molecular mechanisms involving FXR-α, SHP, and PKCζ.
Investigation of receptor-mediated effects of bile acids, particularly S1PR2 activation.

Main Results:

Bile acid induction of SHP is dependent on PKCζ activation, a component of insulin signaling.
Disrupted bile acid signaling, potentially due to inflammation and insulin resistance, may elevate the risk of fatty liver and NAFLD.
Conjugated bile acids can promote cholangiocarcinoma growth through S1PR2 activation.

Conclusions:

Bile acid and insulin signaling pathways are interconnected and crucial for maintaining metabolic homeostasis.
Chronic inflammation and insulin resistance may disrupt these pathways, contributing to liver disease pathogenesis.
Targeting bile acid signaling pathways presents a potential therapeutic avenue for metabolic disorders and cholangiocarcinoma.