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The Thyroid Gland

The Thyroid Gland

The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
The follicles have a central cavity lined by simple cuboidal to squamous epithelial cells called follicular cells. These cells produce the glycoprotein...

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Synthesis and Regulation of Thyroid Hormones

Low blood levels of the thyroid hormones — triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) — signal the hypothalamus to release the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then reaches the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) into the bloodstream.
Upon reaching the thyroid gland, TSH stimulates the follicular cells' active uptake of iodide ions from the blood. The ions diffuse to the apical surface of the cells and are oxidized to iodine. The...

Goiter

Goiter

Goiter refers to an abnormal enlargement of the thyroid gland that may appear as a diffuse goiter (uniform enlargement) or nodular (single or multiple nodules). Functionally, it is classified as nontoxic (normal/low hormone levels) or toxic (excess hormone production).PathophysiologyDiffuse thyroid enlargement typically results from prolonged stimulation by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) or TSH-like agents, commonly seen in hypothyroidism or iodine deficiency. In contrast, in hyperthyroid...

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology

Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH...

Functions of Thyroid Hormones

Functions of Thyroid Hormones

The thyroid hormone (TH) plays a pivotal role in the intricate orchestration of physiological processes, exerting profound effects on development, metabolism, and homeostasis throughout different life stages.
TH is indispensable for the normal development and maturation of the skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems during fetal and childhood growth. It facilitates bone mineral turnover and regulates protein synthesis in developing tissues, contributing significantly to overall growth and...

The Parathyroid Glands

The Parathyroid Glands

The two pairs of parathyroid glands embedded within the posterior surface of the thyroid gland are restricted by a dense capsule around them. These glands comprise two distinct cell populations—parathyroid oxyphil and parathyroid principal cells- pivotal in calcium homeostasis.
Oxyphil cells, whose functions remain elusive, emerge during late puberty, adding a layer of complexity to the parathyroid gland's intricacies. In contrast, principal parathyroid cells undertake a vital role by...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 28, 2026

Transoral Endoscopic Thyroidectomy Vestibular Approach for Thyroid Lobectomy

Transoral Endoscopic Thyroidectomy Vestibular Approach for Thyroid Lobectomy

Published on: May 12, 2023

Alternative approaches to the thyroid gland.

William S Duke¹, David J Terris¹

¹Department of Otolaryngology, GRU Thyroid Center, Georgia Regents University, 1120 Fifteenth Street, BP-4109, Augusta, GA 30912-4060, USA.

Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinics of North America

|June 4, 2014

Summary

Improving cosmetic outcomes in thyroid surgery involves two main approaches: minimally invasive anterior cervical thyroidectomy and remote access thyroidectomy. Both aim to reduce visible scarring, but differ in incision placement and dissection extent.

Keywords:

Endoscopic Minimally invasive Robotic Thyroid surgery

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Last Updated: Apr 28, 2026

Transoral Endoscopic Thyroidectomy Vestibular Approach for Thyroid Lobectomy

Transoral Endoscopic Thyroidectomy Vestibular Approach for Thyroid Lobectomy

Published on: May 12, 2023

An Ex vivo Culture System to Study Thyroid Development

An Ex vivo Culture System to Study Thyroid Development

Published on: June 6, 2014

Gasless Endoscopic Thyroidectomy via the Trans-Axillary Approach

Gasless Endoscopic Thyroidectomy via the Trans-Axillary Approach

Published on: September 15, 2023

Area of Science:

Surgical Oncology
Cosmetic Surgery
Endocrine Surgery

Background:

Growing patient demand for improved cosmetic results in thyroid surgery.
Advancements in surgical technology enabling new approaches.
Need for techniques to minimize visible scarring after thyroidectomy.

Purpose of the Study:

To explore and compare distinct surgical pathways for reducing thyroidectomy scars.
To evaluate methods for enhancing cosmetic outcomes in thyroid surgery.

Main Methods:

Minimally invasive anterior cervical approaches utilizing small, concealed incisions.
Remote access approaches, avoiding anterior neck incisions but involving wider dissection.

Main Results:

Minimally invasive anterior cervical approaches reduce dissection extent.
Remote access approaches eliminate anterior neck scarring but increase dissection.
Both pathways aim to improve cosmetic results of thyroidectomy.

Conclusions:

Two primary strategies exist for minimizing thyroidectomy scars: anterior cervical and remote access.
Choice of approach balances scar visibility against dissection complexity.