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Reinforcement Schedules

Reinforcement Schedules

Positive reinforcement is a powerful method for teaching new behaviors to both animals and humans. B.F. Skinner demonstrated this with his experiments using rats in a Skinner box. When a rat pressed a lever, it received a food pellet. This immediate reward encouraged the rat to repeat the behavior. This method, where a reward follows every instance of the behavior, is known as continuous reinforcement. It is highly effective for establishing new behaviors quickly.
Once a behavior is learned,...

Timing and Consequences on Behavior

Timing and Consequences on Behavior

In operant conditioning, the timing of reinforcement is crucial. For animals like rats and cats, immediate reinforcement (within a few seconds) is much more effective than delayed reinforcement. For example, a food reward for a rat needs to follow within 30 seconds of pressing a bar to be effective.
Humans, however, can respond to delayed reinforcers. We often make decisions between immediate small rewards and delayed larger rewards. This ability to delay gratification is a significant...

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 28, 2026

A Method for Investigating Change Blindness in Pigeons Columba Livia

A Method for Investigating Change Blindness in Pigeons Columba Livia

Published on: September 7, 2018

Simple and multiple schedule responding and behavioral contrast when pigeons press treadles.

F K McSweeney¹, J D Dougan, V A Farmer

¹Dept. of Psychology, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, U.S.A.

Behavioural Processes

|June 5, 2014

Summary

Behavioral contrast in pigeons depends on reinforcement rate. Positive contrast occurred with high reinforcement, while negative contrast appeared with low reinforcement, clarifying contrast definitions.

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Area of Science:

Behavioral psychology
Animal behavior studies
Operant conditioning

Background:

Behavioral contrast is a phenomenon where response rates differ between multiple and simple schedules of reinforcement.
Previous research indicated positive contrast for high reinforcement rates and negative contrast for low rates in pigeons.
The conditions under which these contrast effects appear and disappear require further clarification.

Purpose of the Study:

To investigate the conditions influencing positive and negative behavioral contrast in pigeons.
To determine if simple schedules serve as appropriate baselines for measuring behavioral contrast.
To clarify the definition and measurement of behavioral contrast.

Main Methods:

Two experiments were conducted using pigeons pressing treadles under multiple and simple schedules of reinforcement.
Reinforcement rates were manipulated to be either high or low.
Response rates during different schedule components were compared to baseline simple schedule rates.

Main Results:

Negative contrast was observed: response rates in the less favorable multiple schedule component were lower than in a comparable simple schedule.
Positive contrast was observed only when the schedules provided a high rate of reinforcement.
The absence of positive contrast occurred when schedules provided a low rate of reinforcement.

Conclusions:

Behavioral contrast effects are dependent on the rate of reinforcement.
Simple schedules of reinforcement are appropriate baselines for defining and measuring behavioral contrast.
These findings refine the understanding of behavioral contrast and its underlying mechanisms.