Fuel from water: the photochemical generation of hydrogen from water

Hydrogen has been labeled the fuel of the future since it contains no carbon, has the highest specific enthalpy of combustion of any chemical fuel, yields only water upon complete oxidation, and is not limited by Carnot considerations in the amount of work obtained when used in a fuel cell. To be used on the scale needed for sustainable growth on a global scale, hydrogen must be produced by the light-driven splitting of water into its elements, as opposed to reforming of methane, as is currently done. The photochemical generation of H2, which is the reductive side of the water splitting reaction, is the focus of this Account, particularly with regard to work done in the senior author's laboratory over the last 5 years. Despite seminal work done more than 30 years ago and the extensive research conducted since then on all aspects of the process, no viable system has been developed for the efficient and robust photogeneration of H2 from water using only earth abundant elements. For the photogeneration of H2 from water, a system must contain a light absorber, a catalyst, and a source of electrons. In this Account, the discovery and study of new Co and Ni catalysts are described that suggest H2 forms via a heterocoupling mechanism from a metal-hydride and a ligand-bound proton. Several complexes with redox active dithiolene ligands are newly recognized to be effective in promoting the reaction. A major new development in the work described is the use of water-soluble CdSe quantum dots (QDs) as light absorbers for H2 generation in water. Both activity and robustness of the most successful systems are impressive with turnover numbers (TONs) approaching 10(6), activity maintained over 15 days, and a quantum yield for H2 of 36% with 520 nm light. The water solubilizing capping agent for the first system examined was dihydrolipoic acid (DHLA) anion, and the catalyst was determined to be a DHLA complex of Ni(II) formed in situ. Dissociation of DHLA from the QD surface proved problematic in assessing other catalysts and stimulated the synthesis of tridentate trithiolate (S3) capping agents that are inert to dissociation. In this way, CdSe QD's having these S3 capping agents were used in systems for the photogeneration of H2 that allowed meaningful comparison of the relative activity of different catalysts for the light-driven production of H2 from water. This new chemistry also points the way to the development of new photocathodes based on S3-capped QDs for removal of the chemical sacrificial electron donor and its replacement electrochemically in photoelectrosynthetic cells.