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The upper limb consists of the arm, forearm, wrist, and hand bones. The humerus is the single bone of the upper arm region. Proximally, it has a large, spherical, smooth head that articulates with the glenoid cavity of the scapula to form the glenohumeral or shoulder joint. The margin of the head is the anatomical neck, a residual epiphyseal plate. Laterally it extends to form bony projections called the greater tubercle and the lesser tubercle. Next to the tubercles is the surgical neck, a...
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The theory of projectile motion is very useful for players of several sports to improve their performance. For example, a javelin thrower needs to throw their javelin in such a way that it travels as far as possible. The javelin thrower takes a short run-up to increase the initial speed of the javelin. The range of a projectile is at its maximum at a 45° angle so javelin throwers try to angle their throw as close to 45° as possible.
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Force and momentum are intimately related. Force acting over time can change momentum, and Newton's second law of motion can be stated in its most broadly applicable form in terms of momentum. Momentum can be applied to systems where the mass is changing, such as rockets, as well as to systems of constant mass. Also, momentum continues to be a key concept in the study of atomic and subatomic particles in quantum mechanics. One can consider systems with varying mass in some detail; however, the...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 27, 2026

Measuring 3D In-vivo Shoulder Kinematics using Biplanar Videoradiography
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The thrower's shoulder.

Stuart D Kinsella1, Stephen J Thomas2, G Russell Huffman3

  • 1Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA.

The Orthopedic Clinics of North America
|July 1, 2014
PubMed
Summary
This summary is machine-generated.

Throwers experience unique shoulder injuries, often involving the labrum and rotator cuff. This review covers injury causes, diagnosis, and new treatments for overhead athletes.

Keywords:
GIRDHumeral retroversionLabrumRotator cuff

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Area of Science:

  • Orthopedic Surgery
  • Sports Medicine
  • Biomechanics

Background:

  • Repetitive overhead motions in athletes, particularly baseball players, lead to distinct shoulder injuries.
  • Common injuries include damage to the labrum and undersurface of the rotator cuff.
  • Tissue changes in the glenohumeral capsule are also prevalent in throwers.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To examine the pathomechanics of shoulder injuries in throwing athletes.
  • To elaborate on diagnostic methods for rotator cuff and labral injuries.
  • To discuss recent advancements in non-operative and operative interventions and preventative strategies.

Main Methods:

  • Review of pathomechanics of throwing injuries.
  • Discussion of diagnostic modalities for cuff and labral pathology.
  • Analysis of current non-operative and operative treatment strategies.
  • Examination of injury prevention principles for overhead athletes.

Main Results:

  • Pathomechanics of throwing injuries detailed.
  • Diagnostic approaches for rotator cuff and labral injuries outlined.
  • Current and emerging treatment options, including surgical and non-surgical interventions, are presented.
  • Preventative measures are discussed.

Conclusions:

  • Understanding the unique biomechanics of throwing is crucial for diagnosing and treating shoulder injuries.
  • Comprehensive diagnostic evaluation is essential for effective management.
  • Advances in treatment offer improved outcomes for athletes.
  • Prevention strategies are key to mitigating injury risk in throwers.