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The gut–brain axis is a bidirectional communication system that connects the gastrointestinal tract and the brain. This interaction is mediated through multiple pathways, including the vagus nerve, hormonal signals, immune responses, and chemical messengers produced by gut microbes.Microbial Contributions to Brain FunctionGut microbiota contributes significantly to brain function by producing neuroactive compounds. These include neuroactive compounds that influence neurotransmitters such...
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The gut microbiota includes trillions of microorganisms that colonize the human gastrointestinal tract, including bacteria, archaea, viruses, and fungi. This complex ecosystem plays a critical role in maintaining intestinal and systemic health. Most of these microbes inhabit the large intestine, establishing a relatively stable and diverse community that contributes to gut homeostasis through various metabolic, immunological, and protective mechanisms.Dominant bacterial phyla, such as...
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The oral microbiome includes a complex ecosystem comprising over 700 microbial species, identified through genomic sequencing and culture-based analyses to date. This community includes a core microbiome, found universally among individuals, and a variable component influenced by environmental factors such as diet, lifestyle, and host genetics. Site-specific conditions, including oxygen gradients, pH levels, and nutrient availability, determine the spatial distribution of these microorganisms...
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Microorganisms colonize various regions of the human body, including the mouth, nasal passages, throat, stomach, intestines, urogenital tract, and skin. The total number of microbial cells is estimated to range from 10¹³ to 10¹⁴—comparable to, or exceeding, the number of human somatic cells. This host–microbiome relationship has led to the conceptualization of humans as supraorganisms, wherein microbial communities perform vital roles in development, immunity,...
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The large intestine hosts the most densely populated microbial ecosystem in the human body. This complex community primarily consists of anaerobic bacteria, with Bacillota (formerly Firmicutes) and Bacteroidota (formerly Bacteroidetes) as the predominant groups. The distribution of these microbes varies along different sections of the large intestine, influenced by local environmental factors such as oxygen availability and nutrient composition.The cecum, located at the beginning of the large...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 27, 2026

Intracerebroventricular Delivery of Gut-Derived Microbial Metabolites in Freely Moving Mice
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Microbiota-gut-brain axis and cognitive function.

Mélanie G Gareau1

  • 1Department of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr #0063, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA, mgareau@ucsd.edu.

Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology
|July 6, 2014
PubMed
Summary

Changes in gut microbiota composition impact cognitive functions like learning and memory. This connection is observed in both health and disease, affecting brain physiology and behavior.

Area of Science:

  • Microbiome Research
  • Neuroscience
  • Behavioral Science

Background:

  • Emerging evidence links gut microbiota alterations to cognitive behavior.
  • Gut dysbiosis, including germ-free (GF) models and pathogen infections, influences cognitive processes.
  • Probiotic administration also modulates learning and memory.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To review recent human and animal studies on the microbiota-gut-brain axis.
  • To elucidate how microbiota composition and diversity affect behavior and brain physiology.
  • To explore these impacts in both healthy individuals and disease states.

Main Methods:

  • Analysis of findings from human and animal studies.
  • Examination of data from germ-free mouse models.

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Microbiota Analysis Using Two-step PCR and Next-generation 16S rRNA Gene Sequencing
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  • Review of studies involving bacterial infections and probiotic interventions.

    • Main Results:

    • Significant associations found between microbiota changes and cognitive behavior.
    • Modulation of learning and memory demonstrated through various microbiota interventions.
    • Cognitive effects observed in both intestinal and extra-intestinal disease conditions.

    Conclusions:

    • The gut microbiota plays a crucial role in regulating cognitive functions.
    • Microbiota-brain interactions are relevant across health and disease spectrums.
    • Further research into the microbiota-gut-brain axis is warranted for therapeutic strategies.