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Vision

Vision

Vision is the result of light being detected and transduced into neural signals by the retina of the eye. This information is then further analyzed and interpreted by the brain. First, light enters the front of the eye and is focused by the cornea and lens onto the retina—a thin sheet of neural tissue lining the back of the eye. Because of refraction through the convex lens of the eye, images are projected onto the retina upside-down and reversed.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 27, 2026

Optrode Array for Simultaneous Optogenetic Modulation and Electrical Neural Recording

Optrode Array for Simultaneous Optogenetic Modulation and Electrical Neural Recording

Published on: September 1, 2022

Optical neural interfaces.

Melissa R Warden¹, Jessica A Cardin, Karl Deisseroth

¹Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853;

Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering

|July 12, 2014

Summary

This summary is machine-generated.

Genetically encoded tools allow precise control and monitoring of neural circuits in animals. This review covers hardware advancements for optical neural interfaces in freely moving mammals.

Keywords:

GCaMP channelrhodopsin halorhodopsin imaging neurophysiology optogenetics

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Last Updated: Apr 27, 2026

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Area of Science:

Neuroscience
Biotechnology
Bioengineering

Background:

Genetically encoded optical actuators and indicators have revolutionized neuroscience research.
These tools enable targeted manipulation and observation of neural circuit components in behaving animals.

Purpose of the Study:

To review the development of optical neural interfaces.
To focus on hardware innovations for neural activity control and readout.

Main Methods:

Review of existing literature and hardware development in optical neural interfaces.
Focus on systems for optical control, integrated optical control with electrical readout, and optical readout of neural activity.

Main Results:

Advancements in hardware have enabled sophisticated optical control of neural activity.
Integrated systems offer combined optical control and electrical recording capabilities.
Optical readout methods now allow monitoring of both population and single-cell activity.

Conclusions:

Optical neural interfaces are crucial for understanding neural circuits in freely moving mammals.
Hardware development continues to drive progress in neuroscience research and applications.