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The flow of genetic information in cells from DNA to mRNA to protein is described by the central dogma, which states that genes specify the sequence of mRNAs, which in turn specify the sequence of amino acids making up all proteins. The decoding of one molecule to another is performed by specific proteins and RNAs. Because the information stored in DNA is so central to cellular function, it makes intuitive sense that the cell would make mRNA copies of this information for protein synthesis...
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Two structural features of the DNA molecule provide a basis for the mechanisms of heredity: the four nucleotide bases and its double-stranded nature. The Watson-Crick model of double-helical DNA structure, proposed in 1952, drew heavily upon the X-ray crystallography work of researchers Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins. Watson, Crick, and Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their work in 1962. Franklin was, controversially, excluded from the prize for...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 26, 2026

Rapid, Enzymatic Methods for Amplification of Minimal, Linear Templates for Protein Prototyping using Cell-Free Systems
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Replicating an expanded genetic alphabet in cells.

John C Chaput1

  • 1Center for Evolutionary Medicine and Bioinformatics, The Biodesign Institute, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-5301 (USA). john.chaput@asu.edu.

Chembiochem : a European Journal of Chemical Biology
|July 22, 2014
PubMed
Summary

Synthetic biology now allows unnatural base pairs in living cells. This research details creating semisynthetic organisms with expanded genetic alphabets and discusses future challenges.

Keywords:
expanded genetic alphabetsynthetic biologyunnatural base pairsxenobiotic nucleic acid (XNA)

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Area of Science:

  • Synthetic biology
  • Genetics
  • Molecular biology

Background:

  • Synthetic biology enables the creation of novel biological systems.
  • Genetic engineering allows for the modification of existing organisms.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To highlight technologies for creating semisynthetic organisms.
  • To discuss challenges in expanding the genetic alphabet.

Main Methods:

  • Development of technologies for replicating unnatural base pairs.
  • Engineering of living cells to incorporate expanded genetic material.

Main Results:

  • Successful replication of an unnatural base pair in living cells.
  • Creation of a semisynthetic organism with an expanded genetic alphabet.

Conclusions:

  • Advances in synthetic biology facilitate the creation of organisms with novel genetic capabilities.
  • Further research is needed to overcome challenges in implementing expanded genetic alphabets.