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Bone Disorders

Bone Disorders

Aging and its effect on bone remodeling is the most common cause of bone disorders. In young and healthy people, bone deposition and resorption happen at an equal rate to maintain optimal bone health.
Bone deposition is also affected by the levels of sex hormones like estrogen and testosterone that promote osteoblast activity and bone matrix synthesis. When the level of these hormones decreases due to aging, it causes a reduction in bone deposition. As a result, bone resorption by osteoclasts...

Changes in the Appendicular Skeleton with Age

Changes in the Appendicular Skeleton with Age

The upper and lower limb initially develops as a small bulge called a limb bud, which appears on the lateral side of the early embryo. The upper limb bud appears near the end of the fourth week of development, with the lower limb bud appearing shortly after.
Initially, the limb buds consist of a core of mesenchyme covered by a layer of ectoderm. The ectoderm at the end of the limb bud thickens to form a narrow crest called the apical ectodermal ridge. This ridge stimulates the underlying...

Hormones and Bone Tissue

Hormones and Bone Tissue

The endocrine system produces and secretes hormones, which interact with the skeletal system. These hormones control bone growth, maintain bone once it is formed, and remodel it.
Hormones That Influence Osteoblasts and/or Maintain the Matrix
Several hormones are necessary for controlling bone growth and maintaining the bone matrix. The pituitary gland secretes growth hormone (GH), which, as its name implies, controls bone growth. This happens in several ways: first, it triggers chondrocyte...

Introduction to the Skeletal System

Introduction to the Skeletal System

The skeletal system is the central framework of the body, consisting of different connective tissues: bones, cartilage, tendons, and ligaments.
Components of the Skeletal System
Bone, or osseous tissue, is a hard connective tissue that forms an internal support structure for the human body. Bones shield vulnerable organs and soft tissue from external forces. For example, the vertebral bones protect and support the spinal cord.
Cartilage, a semi-rigid connective tissue found in regions such as...

Role of Vitamins in Maintaining Bone Health

Role of Vitamins in Maintaining Bone Health

The growth and maintenance of bone are regulated by a combination of nutritional factors, including vitamins, such as vitamin A, B12, C, D, and K.
Vitamin A
Vitamin A is involved in the process of bone remodeling. Retinoic acid, the active metabolite of Vitamin A, has nuclear receptors in osteoblasts and osteoclasts, which are involved in bone remodeling.
Vitamin B12
Vitamin B12 acts as a cofactor during the formation of osteoblast-related proteins, such as osteocalcin. Vitamin B12 plays a role...

Skeleton and Calcium Homeostasis

Skeleton and Calcium Homeostasis

Calcium is not only the most abundant mineral in bone but also the most abundant mineral in the human body. Calcium ions are needed for bone mineralization, tooth health, heart rate regulation and strength of contraction, blood coagulation, the contraction of smooth and skeletal muscle cells, and the regulation of nerve impulse conduction. The average calcium level in the blood is about 10 mg/dL. When the body cannot maintain this level, a person will experience hypo or hypercalcemia.

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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 25, 2026

Scanning Skeletal Remains for Bone Mineral Density in Forensic Contexts

Scanning Skeletal Remains for Bone Mineral Density in Forensic Contexts

Published on: January 29, 2018

Bone densitometry in children and adolescents.

Andrea Estrada¹, Mary Scott Ramnitz, Rachel I Gafni

¹aEunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development bNational Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA.

Current Opinion in Obstetrics & Gynecology

|August 22, 2014

Summary

Pediatric bone mineral density assessment has improved with updated dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) databases and expert guidelines. These advancements aid clinicians in evaluating children with fracture risks or bone health abnormalities.

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Last Updated: Apr 25, 2026

Scanning Skeletal Remains for Bone Mineral Density in Forensic Contexts

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Published on: January 29, 2018

Cortical Bone Assessment Using Ultrasonic Guided Waves: A Reproducibility Study in a Healthy Population

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Assessment of Child Anthropometry in a Large Epidemiologic Study

Assessment of Child Anthropometry in a Large Epidemiologic Study

Published on: February 2, 2017

Area of Science:

Pediatric Endocrinology
Skeletal Biology
Medical Imaging

Background:

Bone health abnormalities are increasingly diagnosed in children.
Bone mineral density (BMD) assessment tools, initially for adults, are now better adapted for pediatric use.
Understanding these BMD assessment technologies is vital for diagnosing pediatric bone disorders.

Purpose of the Study:

To review current methodologies for assessing bone mineral density (BMD) in children and adolescents.
To highlight advancements in pediatric BMD assessment technologies and their clinical utility.
To provide guidance for evaluating pediatric bone health abnormalities.

Main Methods:

Review of dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) advancements and normative databases for pediatric populations.
Analysis of consensus statements and expert panel guidance for pediatric BMD evaluation.
Exploration of emerging technologies like quantitative computed tomography (QCT) in pediatric research.

Main Results:

Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) is the preferred method for pediatric bone mineral density (BMD) assessment, supported by improved normative data.
Expert consensus provides clinical guidance for evaluating pediatric fractures and fracture risk.
Quantitative computed tomography (QCT) shows potential as a complementary clinical tool in pediatric bone health.

Conclusions:

Clinicians now have improved guidelines and normative data for evaluating children with fracture history or at risk.
These advancements enhance the focus of clinical evaluations for pediatric bone abnormalities.
Researchers can leverage this information for better clinical trial design and result interpretation in pediatric bone health studies.