A genomic view of the peopling and population structure of India

Recent advances in molecular and statistical genetics have enabled the reconstruction of human history by studying living humans. The ability to sequence and study DNA by calibrating the rate of accumulation of changes with evolutionary time has enabled robust inferences about how humans have evolved. These data indicate that modern humans evolved in Africa about 150,000 years ago and, consistent with paleontological evidence, migrated out of Africa. And through a series of settlements, demographic expansions, and further migrations, they populated the entire world. One of the first waves of migration from Africa was into India. Subsequent, more recent, waves of migration from other parts of the world have resulted in India being a genetic melting pot. Contemporary India has a rich tapestry of cultures and ecologies. There are about 400 tribal groups and more than 4000 groups of castes and subcastes, speaking dialects of 22 recognized languages belonging to four major language families. The contemporary social structure of Indian populations is characterized by endogamy with different degrees of porosity. The social structure, possibly coupled with large ecological heterogeneity, has resulted in considerable genetic diversity and local genetic differences within India. In this essay, we provide genetic evidence of how India may have been peopled, the nature and extent of its genetic diversity, and genetic structure among the extant populations of India.