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The thyroid hormone (TH) plays a pivotal role in the intricate orchestration of physiological processes, exerting profound effects on development, metabolism, and homeostasis throughout different life stages.
TH is indispensable for the normal development and maturation of the skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems during fetal and childhood growth. It facilitates bone mineral turnover and regulates protein synthesis in developing tissues, contributing significantly to overall growth and...
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Low blood levels of the thyroid hormones — triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) — signal the hypothalamus to release the thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH). TRH then reaches the pituitary gland and stimulates the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone(TSH) into the bloodstream.
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The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck and covers the anterior surface of the trachea. The gland has two lateral lobes connected by a thin tissue mass called the isthmus. Internally, each lobe comprises many small spherical structures known as thyroid follicles, surrounded by a network of blood vessels.
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Hyperthyroidism is a type of thyrotoxicosis characterized by the thyroid gland's overproduction of the thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). This hormone excess increases the basal metabolic rate and enhances sensitivity to catecholamines.DiagnosisDiagnosis is based on clinical features and biochemical testing. It typically shows suppressed thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) levels below 0.4 mIU/L, with elevated free T3 and/or T4. Additional tests, including thyroid...
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Hypothyroidism II: Pathophysiology01:23

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Hypothyroidism is a disorder characterized by insufficient production of thyroid hormones, which regulate metabolism, energy balance, and multiple organ systems.TypesHypothyroidism is classified based on the level of dysfunction. Primary hypothyroidism results from intrinsic thyroid gland dysfunction, causing reduced hormone production despite normal or increased stimulation. Secondary hypothyroidism arises from inadequate thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion by the pituitary. Tertiary...
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Hyperthyroidism II: Pathophysiology01:27

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Hyperthyroidism is a hypermetabolic state caused by elevated levels of thyroid hormones, triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4). It results from dysregulation at the thyroid, pituitary, or immune system level and affects multiple organ systems.PathophysiologyThe most common cause of hyperthyroidism is Graves’ disease, an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies, specifically thyroid-stimulating antibodies (TSAb), a subtype of TSH receptor antibodies (TRAb), bind to and activate TSH...
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Evolution, child development and the thyroid: a phylogenetic and ontogenetic introduction to normal thyroid function.

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Congenital hypothyroidism research reveals the thyroid hormone system

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Area of Science:

  • Evolutionary Biology
  • Endocrinology
  • Genetics

Background:

  • Congenital thyroid diseases offer insights into both individual development and the evolutionary history of the thyroid hormone system.
  • Key components of thyroid hormone synthesis, such as iodinated tyrosine derivatives, have ancient origins dating back to plant evolution.
  • The complex regulation and structure of the human thyroid system evolved progressively throughout the animal kingdom.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To explore the phylogenetic evolution of the thyroid hormone system.
  • To understand the molecular origins of congenital hypothyroidism by examining evolutionary variations.
  • To enhance comprehension of human thyroid system defects and potential treatments through an evolutionary lens.

Main Methods:

  • Comparative analysis of thyroid hormone system components across different species.
  • Examination of genetic and molecular mechanisms in evolutionary precursors.
  • Review of existing literature on thyroid system evolution and congenital diseases.

Main Results:

  • The fundamental process of iodinating tyrosine residues is conserved from early plant life (algae) to animals.
  • The thyroid hormone system, including receptors and regulatory hormones like thyroid-stimulating hormone, evolved within the animal kingdom.
  • Early animals like Ciona intestinalis possessed endostyles that iodinated tyrosine and secreted thyroid hormone, activating receptors.

Conclusions:

  • The evolution of the thyroid system involved the accumulation of variations on pre-existing molecules and functions.
  • Studying evolutionary flexibility within the thyroid axis can illuminate molecular defects in congenital hypothyroidism.
  • An evolutionary perspective is crucial for advancing our understanding and treatment of human thyroid disorders.