Assessing in vivo toxicity of graphene materials: current methods and future outlook

Graphene, a novel 2D carbon nanomaterial with unique properties, has attracted massive attention. Evaluating its toxicity is of great significance due to its potential applications in many fields, especially in biomedicine. In this review, the toxicity of graphene-based nanomaterials (GNMs) and related mechanisms at the molecular and cellular level, various approaches to evaluation of the in vivo toxicity of GNMs and major factors defining their toxicity will be discussed and summarized. This review will allow better understanding of the in vitro and in vivo toxicity of GNMs, which, we believe, may facilitate design and fabrication of novel, biocompatible and efficient GNM-based systems for biomedical applications.