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Related Concept Videos

The Physiology of Taste01:24

The Physiology of Taste

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The perception of a salty flavor is facilitated by sodium ions within the oral salivary fluid. Upon consumption of a salty substance, salt crystals disassemble, leading to the liberation of its constituents—Na+ and Cl- ions. These ions subsequently dissolve into the salivary fluid present in the oral cavity. The external environment of the gustatory cells experiences an elevation in Na+ concentration, thereby establishing a potent concentration gradient. This gradient propels the...
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Conditioned Taste Aversion01:14

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Conditioned taste aversion, also known as sauce béarnaise syndrome, is a phenomenon in which an individual develops an aversion to a certain food taste following a negative experience, typically illness. This form of aversion is a type of classical conditioning in which the taste of the food (conditioned stimulus, CS) is associated with the experience of illness (unconditioned stimulus, UCS).
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Gustation01:43

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Gustation is a chemical sense that, along with olfaction (smell), contributes to our perception of taste. It starts with the activation of receptors by chemical compounds (tastants) dissolved in the saliva. The saliva and filiform papillae on the tongue distribute the tastants and increase their exposure to the taste receptors.
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Gustation, or the sense of taste, is intrinsically linked to the anatomical structures located on the tongue. This organ's surface, along with the entirety of the oral cavity, is adorned with stratified squamous epithelium. Evident on the tongue are elevated structures known as papillae (singular = papilla), which house the mechanisms for the transduction of gustatory stimuli. Four distinct types of papillae exist, each identified by their unique morphological attributes: the circumvallate,...
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Aggression01:47

Aggression

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Humans engage in aggression when they seek to cause harm or pain to another person. Aggression takes two forms depending on one’s motives: hostile or instrumental. Hostile aggression is motivated by feelings of anger with intent to cause pain; a fight in a bar with a stranger is an example of hostile aggression. In contrast, instrumental aggression is motivated by achieving a goal and does not necessarily involve intent to cause pain (Berkowitz, 1993); a contract killer who murders for...
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The word “nucleophile” has a Greek root and translates to nucleus-loving. Nucleophiles are either negatively charged or neutral species with a pair of electrons in a high-energy occupied molecular orbital (HOMO). As these species tend to donate electron pairs, nucleophiles are considered Lewis bases as well. Negatively charged species, like OH−, Cl−, or HS−, with one or several pairs of electrons, are typically nucleophiles. Similarly, neutral species such as...
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Related Experiment Video

Updated: Apr 23, 2026

Taste Exam: A Brief and Validated Test
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Published on: August 17, 2018

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Bitter taste causes hostility.

Christina Sagioglou1, Tobias Greitemeyer2

  • 1University of Innsbruck, Austria christina.sagioglou@uibk.ac.at.

Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin
|October 3, 2014
PubMed
Summary

Bitter taste experiences significantly increase feelings and actions of hostility. This effect was observed across multiple experiments, regardless of prior provocation or stimulus intensity.

Area of Science:

  • Psychology
  • Sensory Science
  • Social Psychology

Background:

  • The taste-sensory system is intimately linked to the visceral system.
  • Bitter taste intake typically elicits a strong aversion response.

Purpose of the Study:

  • To test the novel hypothesis that bitter taste experiences increase hostility.
  • To investigate the relationship between bitter taste and aggressive affect and behavior.

Main Methods:

  • Three experiments were conducted using differential bitter and control stimuli.
  • Participants consumed bitter or control drinks and their hostility levels were assessed.
  • Methods included self-reported hostility, hypothetical aggressive affect/behavior, and actual laboratory aggression.
Keywords:
aggressive affectbitter tastehostilityprovocationtaste–affect nexus

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Main Results:

  • Bitter taste experiences increased self-reported current hostility.
  • Bitter taste increased hypothetical aggressive affect and behavior.
  • Bitter taste increased actual hostile behavior in a laboratory setting.
  • The effect was observed with and without prior provocation.
  • Stimulus aversiveness and intensity did not influence the observed effects.

Conclusions:

  • Bitter taste experiences are causally linked to increased hostility.
  • The findings support the hypothesis that bitter taste enhances hostile affect and behavior.
  • The effect is robust and not explained by stimulus properties or provocation.